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Chang  C Overview

     Charles Darwin first suggested that human beings developed from non-human ancestors.  The evolutionary line from prehistoric people to modern humans are classified as hominids (members of the human family).  Evidence for the existence of prehistoric ancestors is based on fossilized bones.  From these bones, teeth and artifacts, scientists can tell what the hominids looked like, how long ago they lived, what they ate, their cultural practices and even some diseases they may have suffered from.  Modern humans may be the direct descendents of some hominids, while other lines of hominids probably died off.  Modern humans are the youngest hominid as we have only been on Earth for 40,000 years.  The first hominids appeared more than four million years ago.

 Australopithecus

     The earliest known hominids, Australopithecines, lived in eastern Africa.  Although no one knows how, they developed the habit of walking upright, which freed their hands for carrying hunting weapons and food.

Fun Fact
     Because of its huge teeth and jaws, anthropologists nicknamed one Australopithecus fossil "Nutcracker Man!"

 Homo Erectus

     Homo erectus lived all over Africa, Asia and Europe.  Erectus was a skilled hunter and toolmaker.  He built shelters and used fire for cooking and warmth, a necessity in the cooler climates encountered outside of Africa.

 Neanderthals

     Neanderthals, formally called Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, lived in the Ice Age and thus used fire and lived in caves to survive the cold.  Neanderthals were either driven away by modern humans and became extinct or interbred with them. 

 Modern Human

     Modern Humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, probably first appeared in Africa about 40,000 years ago and migrated all over Earth.  Modern humans have proven to be the most adaptable and successful hominids with an ability to communicate and solve problems. 

 Australopithecus Brain

     Australopithecus had a brain that was different from any other primate brain.  Although not much bigger than a gorilla's brain now, fossils seem to show that the part of the brain important for complex thinking took up a relatively large part, compared to the brains of other primates.  This development in brain structure and capacity is important for human evolution. 

 Erectus and Sapiens Brains

     The Homo erectus brain was shaped almost exactly like the modern human brain, although it was approximately two-thirds of the size.  In the 1.6 million years since Homo erectus appeared, other species of human ancestors have lived, such as Homo sapiens, each with slightly bigger brains.  Scientists believe that the evolution of brain size and structure helped hominids to adapt to their environment and thus survive. 

 Modern Human Brain

     The ability of humans to think abstractly, to communicate and to make and use tools in ways that other animals cannot may be due to the fact that human brains are relatively large for body size.  The human brain uses more than 20% of the energy taken from food.  Modern humans' brains are made of more than ten billion nerve cells. 

 
   g Population

     There are more than five billion people in the world today, and in the next century global population is expected to reach ten billion before leveling off.  The vast majority of people will be born in developing countries.   Africa has the fastest-growing population in the world today, followed by Latin America.  East Asia has realized the greatest absolute decline in growth rates, mostly due to China's strides in population control.
     The sheer numbers of people in the world, as well as how they live their lives, are critical factors affecting the global environment and quality of life.  In the rich, developed countries, populations generally grow slowly.   These populations have much larger income levels, better health and an higher overall standard of living than in poorer countries.  However, these people of North America and Europe also use a huge proportion of the world's energy and natural resources.  
     In developing countries people generally have a lower quality of life than in rich countries.  Many of these people are quite poor; suffer from poor health and diseases rarely seen in developed countries; and while they use much less energy and fewer natural resources, marginal land is easily destroyed in attempts to extract limited resources in order to survive.  People often have many children because of lack of modern family planning methods, lack of education, and to provide future economic security.

 Infant Mortality

     Infant mortality rate (IMR) measures of how many babies die in their first year of life out of 1000 live births.  This indicator is one good gauge of the overall health of a community, because pregnant women and infants are a vulnerable group likely to suffer from inadequate health care.  If women and children receive good health care and opportunities, then the rest of the population probably does as well.  In addition to access to good health care and birth control, the IMR is affected by overall development of a country, as well as economic opportunities and education for women.
     Clearly, IMR varies widely country to country and continent to continent.  In general, out of the same number of live births, as many as ten times the babies die in developing countries as in developed countries.  Furthermore, these country and continent averages disguise the fact that even more babies die among poorer or remote populations within a country.  The world's lowest IMR's can be found in Scandinavia, and the highest are in Africa.  

 Income Per Person

     Income per person is based on national figures for all domestic and foreign output in terms of U.S. dollars, or gross national product (GNP).  This means that the annual income generated for a country, or region in this case, is divided evenly among the entire population.  In reality, income is not divided evenly between all the people in a country, thus some people are considerably richer and many people are much poorer.  Overall, the richest countries in the world are found in Europe and North America, while Africa's population struggles to survive with a fraction the income of these wealthier countries.
  
 
  $ Steam Engine

     Thomas Newcomen invented the steam engine by feeding steam into a cylinder where it cooled and created a suction that pulled down on a piston.  James Watt later improved on Newcomen's design and patented it. 

 Plow

     The first crude plows were made from a stick and pulled by oxen. The development of this simple tool, believed to have occurred in the Tigris valley, marked the dawn of significant growth of agricultural society.  In the sixth century a new type of plow, which used a metal blade and a board to till the soil, revolutionized agriculture in areas where the ground was too heavy and wet to plow with more primitive tools.  Northern Europe grew remarkably in the Middle Ages, largely due to agricultural advancement associated with this new plow. 

 Rocket

     A rocket is a powerful engine that requires huge amounts of fuel to propel it into the air.  Rockets are used for war, scientific research and space travel.  In the 1200's the Chinese used rockets against attacking enemies.  Today, rockets can destroy jet aircraft and missiles that fly faster than the speed of sound.  More beneficial uses for rockets have evolved recently.  Since 1957 scientists use rockets to launch into orbit around Earth in order to gather weather information and to study distant planets.  Human space flight began in 1961, and in 1969 rockets took astronauts to the surface of moon.    

 Computer

     People have been designing machines to add, subtract and multiply for centuries.  The year 1930, however, marks the start of the computer age with the development of an electromechanical machine that filled a large room.  It took days for the computer solve a problem because engineers had to change the gears by hand. 
     The development of the transistor in 1948 and the microchip in 1971 were breakthroughs that allowed for miniaturization and increased speed of computers.  The first personal computer was introduced in 1975. 
     The introduction of the "Apple Macintosh" in 1984 revolutionized personal computers by making them easy to use by anyone, not just experts.

 Christianity

     Christianity is a religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ.  The religion was founded in Palestine and is now practiced in almost all nations of the world under three general denominations:  Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox.  The written teachings are found in the Bible which includes the Old and New Testaments.  The Western world's calendar dates from the birth of Jesus.  As of 1985, an estimated 1.5 billion people, or 32% of the world's population, was Christian.

 Islam

     Islam is a religion based on the teachings of the prophet Mohammed and is practiced in much of Asia, including the Middle East, southwest Asia, and Asian Russia, as well as Africa.  Islam is based on the Koran, believed to have been written by Mohammed.  The follower of Islam is called a Moslem.  There are two major divisions among Moslems: Sunnites and Shiites (who account for less than 3% of all Moslems).  As of 1985, an estimated 800 million people, or 17% of the world's population, was Moslem.

 Hinduism

     Hinduism is a religion commonly practiced throughout India.  Its origins are not known, but Hinduism is believed to be a mixture of different religious and cultural groups of the Indian subcontinent.  Unlike Christianity and Islam, Hindus recognize thousands of gods, most of whom have mixed powers, both good and bad. Hindus accept the four Vedas as the most sacred book.  As of 1985, an estimated 650 million people, or 13% of the world's population, was Hindu.

 Buddhism

     Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who came to be known as Buddha, or "enlightened one."  Buddhists revere a collection of sayings and rules for conduct called the Tripitika, as well as other sacred works. There are three main sects of BuddhismTherevada and Mahayana which are influential throughout Asia, and the more recent school, Zen, which is popular in the Western world.  As of 1985, an estimated 300 million people, or 6% of the world's population, was Buddhist.

 Taoism

     Taoism is a religion founded by Lao-tze, a Chinese philosopher who lived in the sixth century B.C. in Hunan province.  Although Lao-tze did not permit belief in numerous gods, this is an aspect of the religion today.  The teachings of Taoism were written by Lao-tze and are called Tao-te-Ching.  It is hard to say how many people still practice Taoism in China since it was banned by the Communists in 1949. 

 Judaism

     Judaism is the oldest of all monotheistic religions.  Judaism was founded by Abraham who preached that there is only one God.  The religion is based on the Old Testament and the Talmud, a collection of laws, traditions, poetry and prophecies of the ancient Jews.  There are three main branches of modern JudaismOrthodox, Reform and Conservative Judaism.  As of 1985, an estimated 18 million people, or 0.4% of the world's population, was Jewish.

 Natural Selection

     In 1858 Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection which states that over time, species change to fit their changing environment because only those best adapted to a specific environment survive.  This adaptation process allows species to survive in their unique surroundings and explains why there is such a wide divergence of plants and animals throughout the world.  

 Gravity

     In 1687 Isaac Newton was the first to explain how gravity works. Newton thought that the same force that makes an apple fall from a tree also controls how the planets and the moon orbit.  Gravity is the force that gives everything weight by pulling objects toward the ground.  The normal pressure of air or water is caused by gravity.

 Microscope

     Anton van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch merchant in the mid-1600's. As a hobby, he made single-lens microscopes that were the best of his time.  By using a tiny bead-like lens Leeuwenhoek was the first to obtain magnifications up to 200 times.  He was the first to describe blood cells and bacteria and to see the minute world of small creatures living in a drop of water.  People doubted Leeuwenhoek's discoveries until other scientists later reported the same findings. 

 Genetics

     In 1865 Gregor Mendel concluded that traits were contained in genes that each living thing passes on to its offspring.  He bred short and tall pea plants and found that all of the offspring were tall.  However, when the latter generation reproduced, some of their offspring were short.  He concluded that dominant genes affect the offspring directly, while other recessive genes may not appear until later generations. 

   
 Air

Who has seen the wind?
Neither you nor I:
But when the trees bow down their heads
The wind is passing by.
-Christina Rossetti, Sing-Song

 Earth

When you go around the earth in an hour and a half you begin to recognize that your identity is with that whole thing.  And that makes a change.  You look down and you can't imagine how many borders and boundaries you cross again and again and again.  From where you see it, the earth is a wholeand it's so beautiful
-Astronaut Russel Schweickart (early 1980's)

I have been trying to think of the Earth as a kind of organism, 
Thenit came to me: it is most like a single cell.
-Lewis Thomas, The Lives of a Cell (1974)

Teach your children what we have taught our children, that the Earth is our mother.  Whatever befalls the Earth befalls the sons of the Earth.  Man did not weave the web of life.  He is merely a strand in it.  Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.
-Chief Seattle (1854)

 Ecology

Nature, to be commanded, must be obeyed.
-Francis Bacon, Novum Organum (1620)

 Education

Nothing in education is so astonishing as the amount of ignorance it accumulates in the form of inert facts.
-Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (1838-1918)

I know of no safe repository of the ultimate power of society but people. And if we think them not enlightened enough, the remedy is not to take the power from them, but to inform them by education.
-Thomas Jefferson, 1820

 Environment

Treat the earth well; it was not given to you by your parents, it was lent to you by your children. 
-Kenyan proverb

When I plant a little birch tree and see how it is growing greenmy soul is filled with pride from the realization that, thanks to me, there is one more life added on earth
-Anton Chekhov, The Wood Demon (1860-1904) 

 Equality

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal
-U.S. Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1976)

 Evolution

A fire-mist and a planet, 
   A crystal and a cell,
A jellyfish and a saurian, 
   And caves where the cave men dwell;
Then a sense of law and beauty, 
   And a face turned from the clod 
Some call it Evolution 
   And others call it God.
-W.H. Carruth, Each in His Own Tongue

The true nature of anything is the highest it can become.
-Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)

 Explorers

An age will come after many years when the Ocean will loose the chain of things, and a huge land lie revealed.
-Seneca, Medea (4 B.C.?-65 A.D.)

 History

Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe.
-H.G. Wells (1866-1946)

 Human

I think, therefore I am.
-Descartes, Principles of Philosophy (1644)

 Ideas

The ultimate adventure on earth is the adventure of ideas...Thought is the basic energy in human history.  Civilization is put together not by machines but by thought.
-Norman Cousins, Human Options (1981) 

 Knowledge

Knowledge is Power
-Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)

 Land

Every part of this earth is sacred to my people.
Every shining pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods, every meadow, every humming insect.
All are Holy in the memory and experience of my people.
-Chief Seattle (1850's)

 Life

The survival of the fittest does not mean those fit to kill, it means those fitting in best with the rest of life.
-Lewis Thomas, The Amicus Journal (1981) 

 Music

The man that hath no music in himself,
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 
Is fit for treasons, strategems and spoils.
-William Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice, Act V, Scene 1 (1600)

 Nature

There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is rapture on the lonely shore, 
There is society where none intrudes, 
By the deep sea, and music in its roar; 
I love not Man the less, but Nature more, 
From these our interviews.
-Lord Byron, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, canto IV (1818)

I do not count the hours I spend 
In wandering by the sea;
The forest is my loyal friend,
Like God it useth me.
-Ralph Waldo Emerson, Waldeinsamkeit (1803-1882)

 Peace

They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks: nation shall not lift sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more.
-Old Testament, Isaiah, II,4

 Power

Knowledge is power.
-Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)

 Water

Water, water, everywhere,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water every where,
Nor any drop to drink.
-Samuel T. Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1772-1834)

We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.
-Thomas Fuller, Gnomologia, 5451

 We Are One 

Once a photograph of the Earth, taken from the outside, is availablea new idea as powerful as any in history will let loose.
-Sir Fred Hoyle, British Astronomer (1948)

The golden way is to be friends with the world and to regard the whole human family as one.
-Mahatma Gandhi (1946)
 
   nPeople of Europe
People of South America
People of North America
People of Oceania
People of Africa
People of Asia
Overpopulation
Wasting Water
What We Create
Ecocycles
Endangered Water
Endangered Land
Saving the Environment
Greenhouse Effect
Ozone
Acid Rain
Toxics and Garbage
Agriculture
Endangered Air
Endangered Life
Deserts and Rain Forests
Energy Consumption

  GAnchorage
Athens
Budapest
Buenos Aires
Cairo
Calcutta
Cape Town
Chicago
Copenhagen
Denver
Hanoi
Helsinki
Hong Kong
Honolulu
Istanbul
Jerusalem
Lisbon
London
Los Angeles
Madrid
Mexico City
Miami
Montreal
Moscow
Nairobi
New Delhi
New York
Paris
Perth
Rio de Janeiro
Rome
San Francisco
Seattle
Sydney
Tehran
Tokyo
Vancouver
Warsaw   Air
Earth
Ecology
Education
Environment
Equality
Evolution
Explorers
History
Human
Ideas
Knowledge
Land
Life
Music
Nature
Peace
Power
Water
We Are One 
   XResCopy
(-
PICT to Clip,
Clip to PICT
(-
~403Get Rect
~401FieldLock
~402Alignment Tool
   T(-
<IUtilities,<ITop/T,<IBottom/B,(-,<IFind/F,<IFind same/G,(-,<IPrint/P
<IQuit/Q
   The Creative Process

     Human beings are uniquely capable of bringing an abstract thought to full form.  All great creations and inventions started as an idea in a person's mind.  Following an inspiration, most people go through a rigorous discovery process of trial and error, trying to implement their idea.  It is not always easy to explain insights, and it can be even harder to gain public acceptance.  Nonetheless, by unleashing the creative process it is possible to change the world.    
 
   .Population
Infant Mortality
Income Per Person
   Overview
Australopithecus
Homo Erectus
Neanderthals
Modern Human
Australopithecus Brain
Erectus and Sapiens Brains
Modern Human Brain
   Steam Engine
Plow
Rocket
Computer
Christianity
Islam
Hinduism
Buddhism
Taoism
Judaism
Natural Selection
Gravity
Microscope
Genetics
   The Creative Process
  K
Oceania
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
South America
Steam Engine
Rocket
Gravity
Age of Discovery
Health and Welfare
Recording Studio
Painting
Homo Sapien
Nations
What We Create
Progress
Progress2
Progress3
Progress4
Progress5
History
History2
History3
History4
History5
History 5
Pyramids
Human Journey
Journey through Time



  Erosion
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Amazon
Nile
Lago Titicaca
Moon
Everest
Kilimanjaro
Moving Earth
Lakes and Rivers
Types of Weather
Temperatures
Age of Discovery
Help
Planets
Sun Moon Earth
Map Views
Land
Moving Continents
Food Links
Air
Clouds
Breath of Life
Water
card id 4267
Water Cycle
Life
Chain of Life
Atmosphere
Volcanoes
Earthquakes
Mountains
Land Use
Natural Resources
Oceans and Seas
Rivers
Lakes
Earth Layers
Living Crust
Night and Day
Seasons
Tides
Working Volcano  _EARTHQUEST Explorer Rules:

Click on one of  the 'Play'  buttons to start the game. You will be launched on a tour through part of EARTHQUEST. As you go you will be asked questions based on the information found in that portion of the program. 

Your're running against the clock in this game.  Your final score will be determined by the total amount of time it takes you to answer all the questions, plus 20 penalty seconds for each question you answer incorrectly.

If you have trouble answering the questions, spend some time looking for their answers in EARTHQUEST before you play again.... Good Luck!
   =Earth
Jupiter
Mars
Mercury
Neptune
Pluto
Saturn
Uranus
Venus
   Earth

     Earth is the only planet in the solar system which provides the warmth, water and air needed to support life.  When the planets were formed about five billion years ago, the air on Earth was poisonous and there was no life.  However, over billions of years Earth has changed.  Earth's relatively strong gravitational pull holds a huge mass of air close to its surface, allowing the survival of life on Earth.  Earth's only natural satellite is the moon. 

 Jupiter

     Jupiter is larger and heavier than all of the other planets and their moons in the solar system combined.  The greatest of Jupiter's 16 moons is bigger than the planets Pluto or Mercury.  Although Jupiter is not quite as hot as the sun, with its fusion reactions Jupiter gives off twice as much heat as it receives from the sun.  In 1973, the space probe Pioneer 10 provided the first close-up pictures of this giant planet with its red, brown and white stripes. One of the most exciting discoveries by Voyager 1, in 1979, was that Jupiter has a faint but extensive ring system. 

 Mars

     Mars looks like a bright red star in the sky and is the closest planet to Earth.  For centuries people believed that there was life on Mars, and in fact space probes have shown that the air on Mars does have the basic ingredients living things need.  However, the thin air, deadly ultraviolet rays, lack of water and chilling cold indicate that the planet is lifeless.  Whether the planet ever supported life remains uncertain. 

 Mercury

     Mercury is less than half the size of Earth and has much weaker gravity.  A person weighing 100 pounds on Earth would weigh only 38 pounds on Mercury.  Mercury was named after the speedy Roman messenger of the gods because it is the fastest moving of all planets.  Mercury exhibits temperature extremes, ranging from 800F during the day to -300F at night, and is waterless, lifeless and covered with craters, much like Earth's moon.  The Mariner 10 space probe in 1974 and 1975 provided the only detailed pictures of Mercury available.

 Neptune

     Because of its great distance from Earth, Neptune was not well understood until the 1989 visit by the space probe Voyager 2. Neptune shares structural similarities with Uranus.  Scientists believe that under its thin outer atmosphere are thicker layers of gases and then liquids.  Inside is a layer of ice and then a core made of rock and iron.  However, it remains a mystery why Neptune, unlike Uranus, radiates more heat than it receives from the sun.  Neptune has eight known moons, three rings and two ring-like features. 

 Pluto

     Pluto is the outermost planet of the solar system.  This ball of frozen gases is only about the size of Earth's moon.  The erratic orbit of Pluto causes it to cross occasionally into Neptune's orbit.  Because of its small size and chaotic orbit, some scientists think that Pluto may not be a planet at all.  Perhaps Pluto was formerly a moon of Neptune that has been pulled out of orbit, or it was wandering through space when captured by the sun's gravity. 

 Saturn

     Saturn, the second largest planet, with its spectacular rings, has fascinated observers for centuries.  The space probe Voyager 1 showed that there are thousands of rings instead of the six distinct rings previously thought to surround the planet.  The rings consist of orbiting ice crystals or ice-covered rock that reflect sunlight.  Of the 15 known moons of Saturn, the largest, Titan, is believed to have formed some precursors of life. 

 Uranus

     In 1781 Uranus was the first planet to be discovered with a telescope.  Although it is much larger than Earth, Uranus is barely visible in Earth's nighttime sky due to its great distance from the sun.  Five moons and nine faint rings surround this greenish planet. 

 Venus

     Although Venus is about the same size as Earth and has about the same gravity, it is completely hostile to life with temperatures nearing 900F and clouds of sulfuric acid.  Because Venus rotates slowly in a direction opposite to the way it circles, a single day lasts 117 Earth days.  As one of the closest planets to Earth, 21 space probes, both Soviet and American, have orbited and even landed on Venus. 
 
    %Sun
Moon
Night and Day
Tides
Seasons
  
 Sun

     One million Earths could fit inside the enormous glowing ball of hot gases known as the sun.  Hydrogen fuels the millions of nuclear explosions that occur on the sun every second.  The temperature of the various planets in the solar system is influenced by their location relative to the sun.  It takes only 8-1/3 minutes for the sun's energy to travel to Earth where it provides necessary warmth and energy.  In contrast, the sun provides little energy to remote Pluto, and in fact from this planet the sun looks only like a bright star in the sky.

 Moon

     The moon is Earth's only natural satellite and is the brightest object in Earth's nighttime sky.  The appearance of the moon from Earth changes throughout the 27-1/3 days it takes to revolve around Earth.  These changes, called phases, range from the new moon when the moon cannot be seen at all, to full moon.  When the new moon is directly between the sun and Earth there is an eclipse of the sun. Solar eclipses occur only a few times a year, they last a few minutes and can be seen only from certain points on the Earth. 
     The rotation of the moon on its axis is synchronized with its movement around Earth.  Thus, the small, elongated side of the slightly egg-shaped moon always faces Earth.  The side not seen from Earth is called the far side, not the dark side of the moon.  


 Night and Day

     Earth spins on its tilted axis to make one complete turn every 24 hours.  Half of Earth is always facing away from the sun and is therefore dark.  Because the Earth tilts on its axis, at certain times of the year the pole away from the sun is dark, and the one closest to the sun is light 24 hours a day.  Earth's rotation causes the illusion of a rising and setting sun. 

 Tides

     The gravitational pulls of the sun and particularly the moon cause tidal bulges in oceans, seas and large lakes.  As Earth spins, two high tides and two low tides occur every day on average.  Tidal water typically recedes and rises one or two feet in the ocean, but strong weather conditions can greatly increase tide levels.  When the sun, moon and Earth are aligned, very high and very low tides, called "spring" tides, form.  "Neap" tides have less pronounced levels and occur when the Earth, sun and moon form a right angle.  

 Seasons

     It takes 364-1/4 days (one year) for Earth to travel around the sun.  Seasons depend on the tilt of Earth's axis toward or away from the sun.  In the summer the Northern Hemisphere (above the equator) is leaning toward the sun and is therefore warm.  At the same time the Southern Hemisphere is very cold and is in winter.  The seasons are always opposite in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. 
 
   Overview

     A volcano is formed when gases and molten rock (called magma) well up from tens of miles below Earth's surface.  The magma mixes with water and rock and then erupts through a break in Earth's crust.  Once the magma leaves the volcano, it is called lava. 

Fun Fact
     Volcanoes were once thought to be the entrance to the underworld domain of Vulcan, the blacksmith god. 

 Mount St. Helens

     After lying dormant for more than 120 years, Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980 causing enormous damage in southwestern Washington.  The explosions started forest fires, mud slides and floods, and the thick ash destroyed crops and wildlife.  Geologists expect that Mount St. Helens will continue to erupt occasionally, as occurred in 1986 with several weeks of smaller eruptions.  Mount St. Helens was the first eruption in the continental United States,  outside of Alaska in nearly 60 years.

 Redoubt

     Several eruptions of Redoubt Volcano in Alaska in the first months of 1990.  After significant increase in seismic activity, several eruptions first occurred within a few days in December 1989.  Accompanying the eruptions were lightning near the volcano's top, glowing lava and heavy ash which temporarily disabled a jet flying through. 

 Erebus

     Mount Erebus is in McMurdo Sound in Antarctica.  This 13,000-foot volcano is the largest of five known in Antarctica, all of which are currently active. 

 Asama

     Mount Asama is smaller than Mount Fuji, but it is the most active volcano in Japan.  Asama is in a continuous state of eruption.  It's last great eruption occurred in 1783. 

 Nevado del Ruiz

     Nevado del Ruiz is one of the most active volcanoes in South America.  Its latest eruption, in 1985, engulfed the Colombian town of Armero in lava, mud and water, killing at least 22,000 people.  

 Surtsey

     Surtsey is the most active and largest of 25 known volcanoes in Iceland.  In 1963 an underwater eruption began forming the island of Surtsey, and subsequent eruptions have created a lava base measuring more than one square mile. 

 Mauna Loa

     Mauna Loa on the Island of Hawaii is the largest volcano in the world.  It has a crater measuring 3.7 square miles which discharges more lava than any other volcano.  However, most of the lava from this volcano comes from the sides of the mountain and not from the peak crater.  Mauna Loa's longest eruption occurred in 1855-56 and lasted 18 months.  A violent eruption in 1950 sent lava flowing 25 miles into the ocean.  

 Mont Pele

     Mont Pele in Martinique erupted catastrophically in 1902 after more than 50 years of dormancy.  An avalanche of lava and mud plunged to the valley, travelling more than 100 miles per hour and killing tens of thousands of people in the city of St. Pierre.  The only known survivor of this eruption was a prisoner in the city's dungeon.  Today the French government maintains a volcano observatory on Mont Pele.

 Thira

     Thira, formerly known as Santorin, was an island in the Mediterranean that completely disappeared about 1500 B.C. in an eruption.  Darkness caused by ash from the eruption is documented to have reached Egypt.  A colossal tsunami created by the eruption destroyed about two-thirds of the island of Crete, more than 70 miles away.  The legend of the lost continent of Atlantis may be based on this eruption.  

 Krakatoa

     Krakatoa was an Indonesian volcanic island that exploded in the biggest volcanic eruption in recent history.  The largest explosion during the two day eruption in 1883 was heard 3,000 miles away.  Ash thrown 50 miles into the air blocked views of the stars for years and spread a layer that covered more than 50,000 square miles.  The tsunamis, with 100 foot waves, killed 36,000 people on nearby islands, and a surge was reported as far away as the English Channel.  

 Vesuvius

     Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe, with the recent notable eruption in 1944.  Possibly the most famous eruption in history was the massive explosion of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. which reduced the mountain from a near-perfect 10,000-foot cone to its current height of 4,000 feet.  The towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae were destroyed by lava and ash.  The principal blast sent enough ash and smoke into the air to keep a 20-mile diameter area in total darkness for days.  Despite its deadly history, many people live on the lower slopes of the mountain due its extremely fertile soil.   

 
    WOverview
Lisbon
San Francisco
Tokyo 
Alaska
Peru
Nicaragua
China
Mexico City 
Armenia 
   Overview

     An earthquake is a vibration of the earth which travels as a wave underground.  The point on Earth's surface closest to where the earthquake originates is the epicenter.  There are two types of earthquakes: volcanic and tectonic.  Volcanic quakes are caused by movement of magma below the surface.  Tectonic quakes are caused by a sudden slip of plates along fault lines. 
     An estimated 500,000 such seismic disturbances occur each year, of which 100,000 can be felt and 1,000 cause damage.  The intensity of quakes is usually measured on a scale proposed by C. F. Richter in 1935.  Each successive number is 10 times the strength of the preceding.  Hence, a 3.5 earthquake is 10 times stronger than a 2.5 and 15 times stronger than a 2.0, the smallest quake normally felt. 

 Lisbon

     The Lisbon earthquake of 1755 shook Portugal, Spain and even the northern parts of Morocco with an estimated 8.4 on the Richter scale.  Unfortunately, tall stone buildings, such as churches suffered the most damage, and thus the fact that many parishioners were celebrating mass for All-Saints Day only increased the death toll.  Moreover, tsunamis destroyed most of Lisbon.  

 San Francisco

     The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 was a powerful 8.3 in magnitude, but since it occurred at 5 a.m., most people were in their homes instead of densely populated business areas.  The quake itself caused only a fraction of the deaths and damage compared to the ensuing fires started by gas main breakage.  The San Andreas Fault split open during the quake, displacing land 10-20 feet horizontally for a distance of 250 miles. 

 Tokyo 

     In 1923 the Tokyo earthquake caused immense damage to the area around Sagami Bay.  Damage from the quake, combined with fires that swept Tokyo and Yokohama, left more than half of the population homeless and nearly 150,000 killed or declared missing.  No great surface faults were noted.  However, the sea floor of Sagami Bay moved as much as 800 feet.  

 Alaska

     Relatively few people died in the 8.3 Alaska earthquake of 1964, because it occurred in such a sparsely populated area.  However, the city of Anchorage, over 80 miles from the epicenter, reported massive damage.  In Alaska total damage reached $500 million, and resultant tsunamis caused destruction as far away as Hawaii and Japan.

 Peru

     The Peru earthquake of 1970, centered high in the mountains, caused avalanches that totally buried entire towns.  Over 80% of the homes were destroyed in an area covering 50,000 square miles.  The quake left more than 200,000 people homeless and killed over 50,000. 

 Nicaragua

     The Nicaragua earthquake of 1972 caused over $800 million in damage and killed more than 5,000 people, even though its magnitude was only 6.2.  The devastation was so extensive in Managua that the government simply evacuated and razed the capital city.  Unstable ground and lack of structural planning contributed to the extent of the catastrophe. 

 China

     In 1976 a powerful 8.2 magnitude earthquake struck a heavily populated industrial area in northeast China.  An estimated 240,000 people died.  More than 100 miles from the epicenter, Beijing sustained heavy damage.  

 Mexico City 

     The Mexico City earthquake of 1985 devastated this capital city built on a soft, ancient lake bed.  The first quake, measuring 8.1 on the Richter scale, toppled an estimated 250 buildings downtown.  A second quake just 36 hours after the first, increased the death and destruction, which was reported at 7,200 dead and millions of dollars damage.   

 Armenia 

     An earthquake struck Soviet Armenia with a force of 6.8 on the Richter scale in 1988.  At least 55,000 were killed and an estimated 500,000 were left homeless.  Many villages and towns were destroyed, in part due to poor construction. 

 
    IAconcagua
Elbrus
Everest
Fuji
K2
Kilimanjaro
McKinley
Mont Blanc
Wilhelm
  I Aconcagua

     Mount Aconcagua is not only the highest peak in South America, but also the highest in the Western Hemisphere.  Its peak towers 6,500 feet above the level of the Andes mountains and was first scaled by Vines and Zurbriggen of the Fitzgerald Expedition in 1897.  Mount Aconcagua is located near the city of Mendoza in Argentina near the Chilean border.  At its base lies the tunnel for the trans-Andean railway and the Buenos Aires-Santiago Highway. 

 Elbrus

     Mount Elbrus is the highest mountain in the Soviet Union and is the center of tourism in the Caucasus mountains.  It lies between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the Republic of Georgia.  Mount Elbrus is covered with about 20 glaciers. 

 Everest

     In 1953, Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa guide Tenzing Norgay were the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Many earlier ascents, beginning in the 1920's, were aborted, or the trekkers died in the harsh weather, freezing temperatures and shortage of oxygen.  When asked why he wanted to climb Everest, George Leigh Mallory, who vanished near the summit in 1924, said, "Because it is there."  
     The majesty of Himalayan mountain range, which divides China and Nepal, inspired an ancient Hindu scripture: "As the sun dries the morning dew, so are the sins of man dissipated at the sight of the Himalayas."  Today, however the beauty of Everest and the surrounding Himalayas is threatened by the huge influx of trekking parties and tourists.  

 Fuji

     Mount Fuji, or Fujiyama, is an almost perfect cone-shaped mountain rising more than 10,000 feet above the level of the surrounding plains.  The mountain is of immense religious significance, having always been considered sacred in its perfection.  No one knows when it was first scaled, but every year, more than 50,000 people toil the 13-mile pilgrimage to the top.  The top of Fuji contains an inactive volcano crater, and the base of the mountain is a year-round resort area. 

 K2

     Godwin Austen, more commonly known as K2, is the world's second highest mountain.  It is located in the Himalaya Mountains near Kashmir, Pakistan.  An Italian expedition team first reached the top of K2 in 1954. 

 Kilimanjaro

     The highest mountain in Africa, Kilimanjaro stands majestically in Tanzania, touching the border of Kenya.  Kilimanjaro is an extinct volcano (though recently it has shown some signs of activity) with a spectacular crater atop.  The Chagga tribespeople of western Tanzania believe that thunder and lightning storms are actually this crater's howling for human sacrifice.  Kilimanjaro has a mystical quality for the Chaggait represents all that is good in life, possibly because it has provided these people with rich, fertile ground for growing bananas, coffee and raising cattle. 
     Ernest Hemingway familiarized most Westerners with this famous peak in his story, "The Snows of Kilimanjaro."  Prior to this time, however, when German missionaries first saw Kilimanjaro in 1848, Europeans met the idea of a snow-covered mountain near the heat of the equator with disbelief.  

 McKinley

     Mount McKinley in Alaska is the highest mountain in North America and is now a national park.  Alaskan Indians call the mountain Denali.  However, in 1896 the wilderness explorer W. A. Dickey returned to civilization and, hearing that William McKinley was a presidential nominee, named the mountain after him.  The first ascent was attempted in 1903 by Judge Wickersham, but a group led by Hudson Stuck was the first to reach the peak of Mount McKinley in 1913. 

 Mont Blanc

     Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe (excluding the USSR) and is part of the Mont Blanc Massif mountain range (a part of the Savoy Alps).  Mont Blanc was first scaled by Michel-Gabriel Paccard and Jacques Balmat in 1786 and has since become one of the most popular climbs in the Alps.  In 1965 a tunnel was dug under the Mont Blanc Massif creating the first consistently passable route across the French-Italian Alps.

 Wilhelm

     Wilhelm is the highest mountain in Oceania and is located in Papua New Guinea. 

 
   #Agriculture
Deserts
Forests
Tundra
   Agriculture

     Agricultural cropland accounts for 11% of the world's land area and can provide more than enough food for all people in the world.  Production of the major food cropsgrains, rootcrops, vegetables, fruit, meat and dairy productshas been increasing worldwide, and on a per person basis food production has risen everywhere except in Sub-Saharan Africa.  The reason people go hungry in the world is because of a worldwide interdependent food production and distribution system that is both wasteful and inequitable.  The world's food, and the land that produces most of it, are not equally available to the people who need it.   
     Great strides were made in the 1960's toward alleviating hunger through increased production, particularly in Asia.  This "Green Revolution" allowed high-yielding grains to be grown with heavy reliance on fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation.  However, many poor people were left behind by these innovations.  Other problems of the Green Revolution include environmental side-effects.  Future endeavors to increase global agricultural productivity must take into account both the environment and equity in production and distribution.  

 Deserts

Deserts cover about 15% of Earth's land area, with the largest desert, the Sahara, in northern Africa.  Other notable deserts include the Arabian, the Gobi and the Australian.  There is no single accepted definition for a desert, but generally deserts experience less than ten inches of rainfall per year and are covered by 10-20% sand.  While deserts support relatively little vegetation, many hearty plants and animals have adapted to desert life.  Throughout the world different groups of people have developed lifestyles that allow them to survive in the desert.  For example, in Africa and Asia wandering herders or "bedouins" move from place to place in search of water and grazing land. 

 Forests

     Forests cover 21% of Earth's land surface.  Forest types include cool coniferous forests, warm temperate moist forests, tropical evergreen and deciduous forests and dry forests.  While all forests are a valuable part of the Earth's ecosystem, tropical rain forests have been gaining international attention because of their rapid destruction and the associated environmental ramifications.  Tropical rain forests flourish in hot, humid regions near the equator and account for about 38% of forest land. 

 Tundra

     Tundra is a cold, dry region of permanently frozen soil, where trees cannot grow.  Other life forms like grasses, shrubs, mosses and many kinds of animals can live on tundra.  There are two kinds of tundraarctic and alpine. Arctic tundras include Greenland and the northern parts of Alaska, Canada, Europe and the Soviet Union.  Alpine tundras are located throughout the world on mountains tops. 
 
  m Oil

     Oil, or petroleum, provides nearly half the world's energy and is, therefore, one of the most valuable resources in the world.  Although people have used petroleum over the ages, it has been in the last century that technological developments have significantly increased the demand for oil and improved the quality of petroleum products.  Most industrialized countries rely heavily on petroleum to provide power for cars, factories, ships, farm equipment, and for heat and electricity in homes and businesses.  Petroleum is also the basis for innumerable products, including plastics, fertilizers and cosmetics.
       Heavy reliance on petroleum has come at a high price.  Countries that produce oil have considerable economic and political power over oil-importing countries, as was demonstrated by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the 1970's.  By banding together OPEC forced the price of petroleum up, and consumers all over the world had no immediate choice but to pay more.  The Middle East is the world's largest net oil exporter by a large margin, followed by Latin America and the USSR.  The three main oil importers are the United States, Japan and Western Europe.
       One reason oil is such a precious commodity is that its supply is limited.  As a nonrenewable resource, once oil is extracted from the ground, it can never be replaced.  At 1986 production rates, oil reserves should only last 33 years. 
       Rapid increase in petroleum consumption is evident when comparing data for the last 50 years.  In 1938 world production of crude oil was 275 million metric tons (mmt); by 1986 this figure had risen to 3,000 mmt.  Production and consumption of oil have generally leveled off in recent years, there is still an urgent need to conserve energy on a personal basis and to develop alternatives to all of our nonrenewable energy sources, since petroleum reserves are diminishing.      

 Minerals and Metals

       Minerals are the most common solid material found on Earth.  There are about 3,000 kinds of minerals, most of them more rare than gold.  Since minerals are often concentrated in a few areas, they can have important economic and political consequences.  For example, in recent years, more than half of the world's output of tin was produced in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Brazil and Bolivia.  The majority of bauxite comes from Australia, Guinea, Jamaica and Suriname.  Two-thirds of all nickel is mined in Canada, the USSR, Australia and New Caledonia.  Two-thirds of all manganese is extracted from the USSR, South Africa and Gabon.  South Africa and the USSR are the biggest sources of platinum and gold.  And these two countries along with Australia and Zaire provide most of the world's diamonds.
       In addition to land-based minerals, there is tremendous mineral wealth deep under the ocean floor.  International law governing mining the seas has important consequences for those countries that border mineral-rich ocean areas.  Complicating the issue of rights to offshore resources are environmental issues, such as possible mining disturbances to diverse and fragile ocean ecosystems. 

 
    QOverview
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Ozone Layer
  
! Overview

     Air, or the atmosphere, surrounds Earth out to a distance of 300 miles, although 99% of the atmosphere is only 50 miles thick.  Air gets thinner and thinner until there is no air at all, and here "space" begins.  The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases, and is divided into four zones by temperaturetroposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.  The temperature of air changes with altitude because air expands when there is less air pressure.  When air expands without more heat being added the temperature falls, and therefore gets colder at higher and higher altitudes.

 Troposphere

     The troposphere is the band of atmosphere closest to Earth's surface and varies from five to ten miles in depth.  In this zone clouds are created and storms occur.  Temperature drops rapidly in this region as the altitude increases.  

 Stratosphere

     The stratosphere is 20 miles thick.  Temperature varies considerably in this layer.  The temperature is fairly constant in the lower portion but increases toward the upper portion.  Airplanes generally fly in the stratosphere so they can stay above harsh weather. 

 Mesosphere

     The mesosphere is 20 miles thick and has the lowest temperatures found in the atmosphere.  In the upper levels of the mesosphere the trails left by meteors can be seen. 

 Thermosphere

     The thermosphere begins about 50 miles above the surface of Earth and extends out into space.  The air in this region is very thin and is heated by the sun to temperatures that can exceed 2700 F.

 Ionosphere

     Centered in the thermosphere is a region of highly charged particles called ions that extend upward for several hundred miles.  Radio waves from Earth's surface bounce off the ionosphere back to ground and thus can be sent around the world.  If it were not for the ionosphere, radio waves would fly straight into space instead of following the curve of Earth. 

 Ozone Layer

     Ozone is formed by a fragile bond of three oxygen atoms (normal oxygen has two).  The third oxygen atom is not as strongly attached as the others, and thus ozone breaks down easily when exposed to human-made pollutants called chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's).  CFC's threaten the ozone layer which is concentrated 15 miles above the Earth.  This layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation streaming down from the sun and protects life on Earth.  However, ozone can be harmful when there is too much of it close to the ground because it combines easily with carbon-based fuels, like car exhaust, to produce smog. 
 
    Overview

     Clouds are grouped according to height and appearance. Heights are divided into high, middle and low clouds, while appearances have descriptive labels derived from Latin.  For example, the name for stratus clouds is derived from the term "strato," meaning layer- or sheet-like.  Cumulus clouds come from the term "cumulo," meaning pile or heap.  "Cirro" means curl and describes cirrus clouds.  Nimbus is the name for rain clouds since "nimbo" means rain.  Clouds are often named after a combination of these features and terms.  By looking at the different types of clouds in the sky you can often tell what weather to expect.

 Low Clouds

     Low clouds occur within 6,000 feet of sea level and are either stratus clouds or layered stratocumulus clouds.  Low stratus clouds cover the sky with a thick even blanket that may bring drizzle, rain or snow.  

 Middle Clouds

     Single-layered clouds can be found in the middle region which lies between 6,000 and 20,000 feet above sea level.  Nimbostratus clouds cover the sky with gray and produce rain, whereas altostratus and altocumulus clouds usually indicate a warm, sunny day.  The latter types are formed by many clouds piled on top of each other, although sometimes they do not appear to be connected.

 High Clouds

     High clouds such as cirrus, cirrostratus and cirrocumulus are found above 20,000 feet and are composed solely of ice crystals.  Cirrus clouds are high and wispy and indicate that warm weather is coming.  Cirrostratus clouds are made of one thin layer.  Cirrocumulus clouds form puffy bands that are rarely seen and indicate rain may be coming soon.   

 Cloud Formation

     Heat causes water to evaporate from lakes, oceans or soil and to rise into the air.  When this water vapor rises to a higher, colder altitude, it condenses on little pieces of dust or small salt crystals forming water droplets or ice crystals that we see in the sky as clouds.  Clouds can also form when a mass of warm air is forced to travel up a hill or mountain where it is cooler.  Clouds play an important role in stabilizing climate by reflecting radiation from the sun back into space.  The water and land under a cloud then cools, which slows the evaporation process, forcing the cloud blanket to disappear. 
 
   EWeather
Winds
Thunderstorms
Hurricanes
Tornadoes
Rainbows
Jet Stream
  ˥ Weather

     Weather is the temporary condition of the air that surrounds Earth.  Weather types such as snow, sleet, hail, rain, dew, frost and fog are the result of moisture in the air at various temperatures and altitudes.  In fact the air contains so much water vapor that if it were to fall, it would generate one inch of rain water across the entire surface of Earth.   
     The warmer the air, the more water vapor the air can hold.  When air cools, it must release some of this water.  If this air cools close to the ground, it releases water in the form of dew.  If the dew freezes, it is called frost.  If moisture is slightly higher, it forms a low cloud cover called fog.  Moisture at even higher levels forms clouds and ice crystals.  The ice crystals fall as precipitation when they combine and become too heavy to remain in the clouds.  If the temperature is above 40F, they melt into rain.  From 3839F, they form frozen rain, or sleet.  Below 38F they fall as snow.  If winds hold the crystals in the clouds, they become larger and larger until they fall as hailstones. 

 Winds

     When air moves from a high pressure area to a low pressure area, wind is formed.  The force of the wind depends on how great the difference is between the pressure systems.  

 Thunderstorms

     Thunderstorms are local storms produced by tall cumulonimbus clouds and accompanied by strong gusts of wind, heavy rain, thunder and lightning.  These are the most common type of storm with as many as 50,000 occurring throughout the world each day.   
     Electrical charges build up in clouds to produce lightning flashes, much like the sparks produced by a person shuffling on the carpet and then touching a metal object.  The violent expansion of air creates thunder.  While the total energy of a thunderstorm can be of the same magnitude as a nuclear explosion, only a small portion of this energy is released with lightning.  

 Hurricanes

     When a low pressure region forms over a tropical ocean, a hurricane can be produced.  Winds moving from 75 to 210 miles per hour swirl around the center, or eye.  The storm gathers strength over the warm water, usually moving westward and away from the equator.  Unless the hurricane encounters colder waters and dies out, it eventually strikes land, carrying with it immense destructive power.  Finally, the hurricane dies out over land.  Hurricanes occur between June and November in areas close to the equator, such as the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and the China Sea.  Hurricanes that occur in the China Sea are called typhoons.

 Tornadoes

     While tornadoes are only 1/4 mile wide on average, they carry winds up to 500 miles per hour.  When warm, moist air passes over or under cooler, dry winds, a swirling motion called a vortex is formed.  The air swirls progressively faster creating a tower of spinning winds and rain and creating suction, much like a vacuum cleaner.  Despite their small size, tornadoes in the United States, mostly in the Midwest, kill on average 200 people per year and can carry houses and cars for miles.  In fact, in 1931, a tornado in Minnesota lifted an 83-ton railroad train with 117 passengers and carried it 80 feet.

 Rainbows

     We see rainbows as an arch of six colors in the sky that seem to touch Earth.  A rainbow appears when the sky in front of you is full of rain or mist and the sun is behind you.  Sunlight is a combination of the colors violet, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.  When the rays of the sun pass through water, drops act like prisms by bending and separating the colors, thus forming a rainbow. 

 Jet Stream

     A jet stream is a mass of air about 60 miles across and one mile thick, which flows up to 300 miles per hour.  Three major jet streams circle Earth at an altitude of about 10 to 15 miles.  The polar jet and the subtropical jet blow from west to east, and the equatorial jet runs from east to west over Asia and Africa.  Planes can hook a ride on these air currents to travel faster.
 
    Breath of Life
  ϥ Breath of Life

     All animals and plants need air to live.  In fact their survival is interrelated.  Air is made up of a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and other gases (1%).  The remaining 1% consists mainly of argon and small amounts of other gases.  Oxygen is particularly important to living things.  Plants produce oxygen which humans and animals need to breathe.  Animals breathe out carbon dioxide which plants use to function properly.  Even fish breathe oxygen that is dissolved in water.  Oxygen was formed in the oceans about two billion years ago when algae first appeared.  
     Air is also important because it shields Earth from the sun's harmful rays as well as maintains Earth's temperature.  Without air cars wouldn't run, planes and birds couldn't fly, and a feather and a rock would fall at the same rate.  The world would be perfectly silent without air because its vibration against our eardrums is what creates sounds.
 
   Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Arctic Ocean
Mediterranean Sea
Caribbean Sea
Gulf of Mexico
Black Sea
Red Sea
Baltic Sea
   Atlantic Ocean

     The Atlantic Ocean is second is size only to the Pacific Ocean.  It covers approximately 31.5 million square miles, not including gulfs and bays.  The Atlantic covers over a fifth of the surface of Earth, spanning from Europe and Africa in the east to the Americas in the west. The average depth of the Atlantic is about 14,000 feet.  The Puerto Rico Trench claims the deepest known part of the Atlantic at 28,374 feet, almost as deep as Mount Everest is high. 
     Ancient Romans named the Atlantic after the Atlas Mountain Range.  These mountains marked the limits of the known world at that time. 

 Pacific Ocean

     The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest body of water on Earth.  The Pacific covers about one third of the surface of the world or about 63.8 million square miles.  The average depth of this ocean is 14,000 feet.  However the Mariana Trench near Guam is 36,200 feet deep and is the deepest known area in any ocean. 
     The Pacific, which means peaceful, was named by the Portuguese explorer Magellan.  The Pacific is anything but peaceful, however, with enormously destructive storms, typhoons, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that have caused devastating tsunamis. 

 Indian Ocean

     The Indian Ocean, spanning the 28.3 million square miles between the east coast of Africa and Australia, is the third largest body of water on Earth.  It is bounded by India and the rest of southern Asia to the north, and Antarctica to the south.  Its average depth is 11,000 feet, and its deepest known point, the Java Trench, is 25,344 feet deep.  

 Arctic Ocean

     The Arctic Ocean, lying at the extreme north on Earth, is contained wholly within the Arctic Circle.  It is almost landlocked by Asia and North America and provides the shortest route between the USSR and the United States.  The Arctic is the world's smallest ocean, covering 5.4 million square miles.  Since it receives so little heat from the sun, this ocean is almost completely covered in ice. 

 Mediterranean Sea

     The Latin translation of Mediterranean, "middle of the land," gives some clue to its importance.  Surrounded by Europe, Asia and Africa, the Mediterranean Basin has been referred to as "the cradle of civilization" because of the cities and commerce along the seacoast and because civilization spread outward to the west from the eastern Mediterranean.  The Mediterranean has served as a major route of both trade and conquest throughout history.  
     The Mediterranean is 2,300 miles from east to west and approximately 1,000 miles from north to south at its widest point. 

 Caribbean Sea

     The 750,000 square miles of the Caribbean Sea are surrounded by Central America, South America and the West Indies.  This sea lies south of the Gulf of Mexico and west of the Atlantic Ocean.  The Channel of Yucatn and the Windward Passage serve as major shipping routes from the United States and Europe to the Panama Canal. 
     The sea is widely used for tourist cruise ship voyages, thanks to its calm and temperate climate.  Nevertheless, from August to October the region is noted for its destructive hurricanes. 

 Gulf of Mexico

     Lying just south of the United States, north of the Caribbean Sea, and west of the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico is a major shipping route between the southern and eastern coastal United States. 
     Though normally a calm, warm body of water, between August and October the Gulf is often the source of violent thunderstorms and hurricanes.  
     The Gulf of Mexico covers 700,000 square miles and is more than 10,000 feet deep at the center.  

 Black Sea

     The Black Sea is a large and deep sea lying off the northeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea.  Its area168,500 square milesis comparable to the size of California.  The Black Sea spans 748 miles east to west and 374 miles north to south.  Barges use this sea as a route from the Mediterranean Sea up the Danube and other rivers into eastern Europe and the southern USSR.   

 Red Sea

     The Red Sea is a famous sea mentioned in the Bible and the Koran.  The Red Sea physically divides northeast Africa from the Middle East.  This long, thin sea measures only 215 miles at its widest point and 1,435 miles in length.  The entrance to the Red Sea in the south is the Gulf of Aden, and to the north the human-made Suez Canal serves as a passageway to the Mediterranean.  The Red Sea is heavily travelled by ships because it offers the shortest route from Asia to Europe or North Africa.  

 Baltic Sea

     Lying in the north of Europe surrounded by Denmark, Sweden, Finland, the USSR, Poland and Germany, the Baltic Sea spans about 160,000 square miles.  This shallow sea averages only 200 feet deep, and because of its northern location, it often freezes in the winter.  When not frozen, the Baltic Sea serves as an important shipping route to bordering seaports.  It is also a major fishing area for northern, cold water fish. 

 
  3
 Lake Victoria

     Standing on the borders of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania is Lake Victoria, the main source of the Nile River.  Its 27,000 square miles make Victoria the second largest freshwater lake in the world.  It is situated at an altitude of 3,720 feet and has a depth of 270 feet.  Many populated islands lie in the lake, including Ukerewe, the largest.  

 Caspian Sea

     The Caspian Sea's 143,000 square miles make it the largest inland body of water on Earth.  It runs 770 miles long and 300 miles across.  It is located between the USSR and Iran.  At one time the Caspian was connected to the Black Sea.  Most of the sea is shallow (less than 26 feet deep), but depths up to 3,072 feet have been discovered. 

 Lake Ladoga

     In the northwest portion of the USSR lies the largest freshwater lake in Europe.  It occupies 7,100 square miles and is 30 times the size of Lake Geneva.  The average depth of Lake Ladoga is 200 feet, though depths to 730 feet have been charted.
     The southern part of the lake supports a large fishing industry, and the steep descent of inflowing rivers supplies hydroelectric power to the paper and wood pulp industry that lines that lake's shores. 

 Lake Superior

     Lake Superior, the largest of the five Great Lakes, lies on the United States-Canada border and is the largest freshwater lake in the world.  It is 383 miles long and 160 miles wide, and forms the west end of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence transport system.  Superior's average depth is 475 feet, and its deepest point plunges to 1,302 feet.  The lake occupies almost 32,500 square miles of terrain. 

 Lake Eyre

     Lake Eyre is a large shallow saltwater lake found in south Australia, and the largest lake in Oceania.  Most of the time Lake Eyre is a dry salt bed, but it fills with water following heavy rains, when it measures 3,600 square miles. 

 Lake Titicaca

     High in the Andes, on the border between Peru and Bolivia, lies Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable lake in the world.  Lake Titicaca lies 12,507 feet above sea level, measures 3,200 square miles, and is more than 900 feet deep in some places.  Many islands lie in the lake, some with ruins from ancient Incan civilizations.  Lake Titicaca's shore is lined with numerous Indian villages whose inhabitants traverse the lake on boats made from reeds called totoras. 
        
 Mississippi River

     The Mississippi River flows from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico and serves as the master drainage system for the area between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains.  The river, in combination with the Ohio, Missouri and other rivers, has been a major transportation route since the area was first settled.  
     The combined Mississippi-Missouri river system is the third largest in the world and provides water transportation between Montana, Canada, New York and the Atlantic Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico. 
     
 Yangtze River

     China's longest river, the Yangtze, is the fourth longest in the world and travels 3,494 miles before emptying into the South China Sea.  The Chinese refer to the Yangtze as "China's Fortune" because it provides fertile soil in central China as well as extensive trade routes. 
     The area along the river is touted as the place of origin of irrigation technology, dating back to the 3rd century B.C.  Such innovation developed presumably because people living near the river attempted to control flooding by diversion channels.
     Heavy rains and melting Tibetan highland snow in the spring and summer account for a water level difference of over 200 feet between winter and summer.

 Danube River

     The Danube is the longest river in Europe and extends 1,750 miles throughout most of southeastern Europe.  A canal connects the Danube to the Black Sea and on to the Mediterranean Sea.  Most of the river is navigable by small ships and barges.  
     Because of the Danube's significance as an international waterway, countries bordering the river have signed agreements guaranteeing freedom of transportation.    

 Murray River

     The 1,600 mile long Murray River forms a significant portion of the boundary between Victoria and New South Wales in Australia.  The Murray is the largest Australian river and supplies an immense amount of water for irrigation.  It empties into the Indian Ocean at Encounter Bay.  Though once a major trade route, railroads have since shifted the Murray's primary usage to irrigation.

 Amazon River

     By volume the largest river in the world, the Amazon is the most important waterway in South America.  Its wandering 4,000-mile path from Peru through Brazil to the Atlantic is the second longest in the world, surpassed only by the Nile. 
     The giant Amazon Basin spans 1,850,000 square miles.  This basin is the site of the "lungs of the world," the Amazon rain forest which supplies one-fifth of the world's oxygen.  Development of the Basin poses threats to the environment and to the inhabitants, and thus South American governments are carefully weighing development plans.   

 Nile River

     From Lake Victoria, deep in Kenya and Tanzania, flows the Nile.  As the world's longest river, the Nile river flows 4,150 miles north to the Mediterranean.  The river supports great amounts of vegetation in the southern half and irrigates significant portions of the desert which surround its northern half.
     In the 1960's, the Aswan High Dam was built in an attempt to improve the agricultural capacity of the Nile Valley area.  Unfortunately, little was understood about the existing structure and stability of the region, and thus the dam had far-reaching negative side effects.  Many homes as well as ancient temples were submerged by the dam.  Today the fertile Nile delta is drying up, the dam is filling with sediment, water-borne diseases are prevalent, and farmers must import fertilizer in order to sustain agriculture.  
 
  \
 San Francisco Water Cycle

     This scene depicts the primary water supply serving approximately 2.1 million people in San Francisco and several Bay Area communities.   This water system begins several hundred miles away in the Sierra Nevada mountain range where the winter snow pack melts in the spring, bringing water to the reservoirs via gushing rivers and streams.    
     One important reservoir is the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir located adjacent to the world famous Yosemite National Park.  652 square miles of rugged mountain range feed this reservoir, which was constructed beginning in 1912.  Currently the Hetch Hetchy has the capacity to supply 300 million gallons of water per day through an underground pipeline that stretches 149 miles to the Crystal Springs Reservoir.  Crystal Springs has a storage capacity of 69,000 acre feet of water. 

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20,189
285,159
299,175
234,163
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Athens,14,0,1
Budapest,13,1
Buenos Aires,8
Cairo,14,1
Calcutta,18,1
Cape Town,14
Chicago,6
Copenhagen,13
Denver,5
Hanoi,20
Helsinki,14,1
Hong Kong,21
Honolulu,1
Istanbul,15
Jerusalem,14,1
Lisbon,12
London,12,1
Los Angeles,4
Madrid,13
Mexico City,6
Miami,7
Montreal,7
Moscow,15,1
Nairobi,15,1
New Delhi,18,1
New York,7
Paris,13
Perth,21
Rio de Janeiro,9
Rome,13,1
San Francisco,4
Seattle,4
Sydney,23,1
Tehran,16,1
Tokyo,22,1
Vancouver,4
Warsaw,15
   Overview

     Maps play an important role in our lives.  Not only do they help us find out where we are or where we are going, but they also shape our view of the world.  Given the importance of maps, cartographers, or map makers, are faced with the impossible task of accurately portraying our round, three-dimensional planet on a flat, two-dimensional map. 
     
 Mercator Map 
     The most familiar world map is known as the Mercator map.  It was first developed in 1569 for European navigators and was a major breakthrough for its time.  The Mercator map charts the countries of the world by projecting Earth's features into the inside of a cylinder wrapped around a globe.  When the cylinder is unrolled, Earth's features are displayed on a flat surface. 
     In the centuries since Mercator's development, many limitations of this map have become evident.  The most obvious problem is that the shapes of countries are progressively deformed, becoming inaccurately enlarged the further they are from the equator. 

 Peters Projection
     To remedy the skewed Mercatur portrayal of the world a German historian named Peters developed the Peters projection map in 1974.  The greatest attribute of the Peters map is that all areas are represented according to their relative size.  One square inch anywhere on the map represents a constant number of square miles.  When first viewed, Peters map seems distorted.  However, it is actually a more accurate, though less familiar, portrayal of country sizes.     

 
   (Overview
Mercator Map
Peters Projection
   Lake Victoria
Caspian Sea
Lake Ladoga
Lake Superior
Lake Eyre
Lake Titicaca
Mississippi River
Yangtze River
Danube River
Murray River
Amazon River
Nile River
   MOverview
Mammals
Fish
Reptiles
Birds
Insects
Plants
Chain of Life
Food Chain
   =Earth
Jupiter
Mars
Mercury
Neptune
Pluto
Saturn
Uranus
Venus
   Earth

     Earth is the only planet in the solar system which provides the warmth, water and air needed to support life.  When the planets were formed about five billion years ago, the air on Earth was poisonous and there was no life.  However, over billions of years Earth has changed.  Earth's relatively strong gravitational pull holds a huge mass of air close to its surface, allowing the survival of life on Earth.  Earth's only natural satellite is the moon. 

 Jupiter

     Jupiter is larger and heavier than all of the other planets and their moons in the solar system combined.  The greatest of Jupiter's 16 moons is bigger than the planets Pluto or Mercury.  Although Jupiter is not quite as hot as the sun, with its fusion reactions Jupiter gives off twice as much heat as it receives from the sun.  In 1973, the space probe Pioneer 10 provided the first close-up pictures of this giant planet with its red, brown and white stripes. One of the most exciting discoveries by Voyager 1, in 1979, was that Jupiter has a faint but extensive ring system. 

 Mars

     Mars looks like a bright red star in the sky and is the closest planet to Earth.  For centuries people believed that there was life on Mars, and in fact space probes have shown that the air on Mars does have the basic ingredients living things need.  However, the thin air, deadly ultraviolet rays, lack of water and chilling cold indicate that the planet is lifeless.  Whether the planet ever supported life remains uncertain. 

 Mercury

     Mercury is less than half the size of Earth and has much weaker gravity.  A person weighing 100 pounds on Earth would weigh only 38 pounds on Mercury.  Mercury was named after the speedy Roman messenger of the gods because it is the fastest moving of all planets.  Mercury exhibits temperature extremes, ranging from 800F during the day to -300F at night, and is waterless, lifeless and covered with craters, much like Earth's moon.  The Mariner 10 space probe in 1974 and 1975 provided the only detailed pictures of Mercury available.

 Neptune

     Because of its great distance from Earth, Neptune was not well understood until the 1989 visit by the space probe Voyager 2. Neptune shares structural similarities with Uranus.  Scientists believe that under its thin outer atmosphere are thicker layers of gases and then liquids.  Inside is a layer of ice and then a core made of rock and iron.  However, it remains a mystery why Neptune, unlike Uranus, radiates more heat than it receives from the sun.  Neptune has eight known moons, three rings and two ring-like features. 

 Pluto

     Pluto is the outermost planet of the solar system.  This ball of frozen gases is only about the size of Earth's moon.  The erratic orbit of Pluto causes it to cross occasionally into Neptune's orbit.  Because of its small size and chaotic orbit, some scientists think that Pluto may not be a planet at all.  Perhaps Pluto was formerly a moon of Neptune that has been pulled out of orbit, or it was wandering through space when captured by the sun's gravity. 

 Saturn

     Saturn, the second largest planet, with its spectacular rings, has fascinated observers for centuries.  The space probe Voyager 1 showed that there are thousands of rings instead of the six distinct rings previously thought to surround the planet.  The rings consist of orbiting ice crystals or ice-covered rock that reflect sunlight.  Of the 15 known moons of Saturn, the largest, Titan, is believed to have formed some precursors of life. 

 Uranus

     In 1781 Uranus was the first planet to be discovered with a telescope.  Although it is much larger than Earth, Uranus is barely visible in Earth's nighttime sky due to its great distance from the sun.  Five moons and nine faint rings surround this greenish planet. 

 Venus

     Although Venus is about the same size as Earth and has about the same gravity, it is completely hostile to life with temperatures nearing 900F and clouds of sulfuric acid.  Because Venus rotates slowly in a direction opposite to the way it circles, a single day lasts 117 Earth days.  As one of the closest planets to Earth, 21 space probes, both Soviet and American, have orbited and even landed on Venus. 
 
    >Overview
Low Clouds
Middle Clouds
High Clouds
Cloud Formation
   San Francisco Water Cycle
   tOverview
Mount St. Helens
Redoubt
Erebus
Asama
Nevado del Ruiz
Surtsey
Mauna Loa
Mont Pele
Thira
Krakatoa
Vesuvius
   Oil
Minerals and Metals
  ' Overview

     There are more than two million species of living things on Earth.  These range in size from microscopic bacteria to giant sequoia trees and blue whales.  Scientists have difficulty defining life precisely.  All life is made up of cells, and requires water and many other chemical substances for survival.  Most organisms are 5095% water. 
     There are six basic characteristics all living things share: 1) reproduction, 2) metabolism, 3) growth, 4) movement, 5) responsiveness and 6) adaptation.  However, there are some exceptions to this scheme and some organisms that are not alive, such as viruses, exhibit some of these features. 
     Living things are found throughout Earth's biosphere, from the icy arctic, to tropical jungles, to arid deserts.  Despite the enormous variety of life and its surroundings, the range of temperatures and environmental conditions in which living things can survive is limited.  

 Mammals

     There are 4,000 to 4,500 species of mammals, including humans, dogs, elephants, bats and whales, to name a few.  Mammals make up one class of vertebrates (backboned animals).  They are warm-blooded, meaning their body temperature stays the same even when the temperature of their surroundings changes.  Mammals also care for their young a relatively long time and have the ability to nurse their babies.  All mammals have hair at some point in their life, but in the case of whales, it is present only before birth.  
     Most mammals eat plants and are thus herbivores.  Flesh eating mammals are called carnivores, insect-eating mammals such as bats and shrews are insectivores.  Mammals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores and include humans, bears and hogs.  Mammals have a well developed brain, and some mammals such as dolphins chimpanzees and particularly humans are highly intelligent.

 Fish

     Scientists have identified about 21,700 kinds of fish.  Three-fifths of all known fish live in saltwater environments, like the ocean.  The remainder live in freshwater lakes, rivers or ponds.  Fish make up more than half of all known species of vertebrates, and their appearance about 500 million years ago marked the arrival of the first backboned animals.  Nearly all fish breathe through gills instead of lungs and are cold-blooded, meaning their body temperature stays about the same as their surroundings.  Some water animals are called fish, but since they do not have a backbone they are not really fish.  Examples include jellyfish, starfish, clams, lobsters and shrimp.
     Fish live in water all over the world, ranging from the freezing Arctic Ocean to roaring rivers to waters in tropical jungles.  Only a few fish can survive without water, living in dried-up river beds for months. 
     Fish are an important source of food for millions of people all over the world.  Fish is among the most nourishing of all foods and is a major part of people's diets in Japan and Norway.  Throughout the world commercial fishing takes place in oceans, inland waters and fish farms.

 Reptiles

     There are about 6,000 species of reptiles including lizards, snakes, alligators and turtles.  Reptiles make up one class of vertebrates (backboned animals).  They differ from mammals in that they have dry, scaly skin, and they are cold-blooded.  Most reptiles live in the tropics, although they can be found on every continent except Antarctica and in all the oceans except in the polar regions. 
     With the exception of some snakes and lizards, reptiles are oviparous, meaning the females lay eggs that have shells.  Very few species of reptiles provide care for their eggs or young.  Most reptiles are carnivores except for a few plant-eating turtles and lizards.  Birds, other reptiles and mammals are the primary predator of reptiles, particularly small or young reptiles.  Larger, adult reptiles are vulnerable only to humans who hunt them for food and for their skins.  Many reptiles have been hunted to the brink of extinction, and thus the importation of the hides of endangered species is prohibited in the United States.

 Birds

     There are about 8,600 kinds of birds all of which have feathers and wings.  However, not all birds can fly.  For example, ostriches walk or run, using their wings for balance, and penguins swim, using their wings like flippers, but neither flies.  Birds are warm-blooded like mammals, but they have a higher body temperature.  They are also vertebrates.  However, unlike other vertebrates, birds have a hard beak or bill instead of teeth.  Birds most commonly communicate with each other by using songs and calls. 
     All birds are hatched from eggs, and most baby birds are fed and protected by their parents until they are several weeks or months old.  Birds mainly eat insects, seeds, fruit, fish or meat.  Because cold, snowy winter weather makes food harder to obtain, many species of birds migrate to warmer climates in the fall and return to breeding grounds in the spring.  
     In the last 300 years about 80 kinds of birds have become extinct and currently 210 kinds of birds are endangered, mostly due to human interference.  People have overhunted birds, introduced animals that prey on birds, and destroyed their natural avian habitat in order to build cities and farms.  Four of the most famous extinct species are the dodo, the passenger pigeon, the moa and the great auk.  

 Insects
     
     Insects appeared on Earth at least 400 million years ago and have remained the most abundant animal.  Of about one million kinds of animals that scientists have identified, more than four-fifths are insects.  Moreover, between 7,000 and 10,000 new kinds of insects are discovered every year from among what scientists believe are one to ten million undiscovered insect types. 
     The insect animal kingdom represents immense variety in almost every aspect.  Insects live all over the world, in stark weather extremes and under conditions that would be unlivable for other animals.  Insects vary in size from 1/4 of a millimeter to more than four inches.  Insects come in all colors and have an amazing diversity of shapes and special structures that allow for their survival.  
     Insects are generally viewed as helpful or harmful to humans, and a great deal of human energy is spent trying to rid crops of harmful pests, to exterminate household insects, and conversely to harvest insect by-products such as honey or silk.  In reality, only about 1% of identified insects are harmful.  Further, they pollinate crops and are thus an important part of the food chain.   

 Plants

     Scientists believe there are more than 350,000 species of plants.  Plants are the oldest and largest living things on Earth.  The creosote plant and possibly some lichens are at least 10,000 years old.  The giant sequoia trees of northern California and Oregon are the tallest known species of tree.  All plants have thick walls made of cellulose; they all develop from a tiny plant form called an embryo; and most plants make their own food from sunlight, air and water by a process called photosynthesis. 
     Plants can be found all over the world, spreading from mountain tops to frozen arctic tundra to the ocean floor.  However, since plants need sunlight and water to live, plants are most abundant in areas that are warm at least part of the year, have plentiful rainfall and enjoy rich soil. 
     Plants are the definitive source of oxygen: they take carbon dioxide from the air and give off oxygen.  In addition, they provide people with food, materials for building, clothes and fuel.  Many types of medicine, that treat ailments ranging from headaches to heart disease, are derived from plants.  Other useful functions of plants are to add beauty to the world (flowers); to keep soil from blowing or washing away; and to provide food and shelter for animals.  Not all plants are helpful to humans, howeversome plants are poisonous, cause allergies, or choke off other useful plants.

 Chain of Life

     Many scientists divide living things into five main groups called kingdoms.  These include plants, animals, fungi, protists and monerans.  These five groupings are necessary because not all living things fall neatly into the category plant or animal.  Fungi, for example, are traditionally classified as plants.  However, they obtain their food differently from and do not have the same kinds of tissue as multicelled green plants.  The protist kingdom consists of single-celled organisms called protozoa and some kinds of algae.  Monerans, such as bacteria and blue-green algae, consist of organisms that differ in cell structure from all other living things.  There are nearly 1 million species of fungi, protists, and monerans, accounting for nearly half of identified species.

 Food Chain 

     The survival of all animals and plants depends on their physical surroundings and on other living things.  In general, plants, animals and organisms live in balance in a community.  The ecosystem is upset if one species is either too abundant or is destroyed, leading to a chain reaction throughout the community.  In most cases, these reactions work to restore the balance of nature.  However, if the balance is upset severely, typically by a natural disaster or human interference, entire species may be annihilated, or areas may become unhabitable for most life forms.  
     A primary link between plants and animals in an ecosystem is food.  Plant-eating animals keep plant growth in check as insect-eaters do for insects.  Flesh-eating (predatory) mammals help maintain the balance of nature by feeding on plant-eating animals (prey), which could wipe out certain species of plants if their numbers were not kept in check.  Moreover, predatory animals typically kill only the weakest and least desirable prey, thus leaving the strong prey populations to reproduce.  In turn, mammals help plants grow by nourishing the soil with fertilizer and undigested seeds in their droppings.  This food chain, whereby one life form relies on another, which likewise relies on another, helps to keep all species populations in balance throughout the world. 
 
   Show Sample Window   Show Sample Window
  { Overview

     Desertification is a process in which once productive land becomes useless desert.  This process can occur with climatic changes, but more frequently humans are the major contributor. Desertification occurs in dryland areas after the protective layer of vegetation is overgrazed or destroyed.  When that layer is gone, the land can no longer hold moisture, and topsoil is easily eroded with exposure to wind and rain.  
     Deforestation is a similarly destructive process that can occur in rain forests. By 1980, as much as 40% of the world's tropical forests had been wiped out.  Approximately three thousand acres of rain forests are decimated every hour.  However, forest destruction is not limited to tropical rain forests.  At least 85% of old growth forests in the U.S. Pacific Northwest of the United States have been cut down. 
     Several factors contribute to rain forest destruction worldwide.  Often, governments encourage development of rain forest areas, by clearing land for industry, dams, agriculture projects or lucrative logging activities.  Also, poor people, unable to survive on marginal land, clear forests so they can grow crops or raise cattle.  However, the delicate rain forest ecosystem breaks down easily when trees are cleared, and soon the nutrient-depleted soil is useless.  
     Rain forests are home to millions of species of plants, birds and other wildlife.  This rich biological diversity is irreplaceable and benefits people throughout the worldone quarter of the medicinal drugs prescribed in the United States today are derived from natural compounds, many of which are only found in rain forests. 
     Moreover, destruction of rain forest increases carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by the burning of the trees themselves.  Further, the result is fewer trees to convert carbon dioxide to oxygen, thus contributing more to the buildup of carbon dioxide.  Overall, the elevated levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide create a global warming or greenhouse effect, believed to be harmful to all life forms.  A tree can absorb carbon dioxide at a rate of 26 pounds per year. 

 Sahara Desert

     The Sahara Desert is a vast expanse of dry land in north Africa that is about the size of the United States.  Almost 10,000 years ago, during an Ice Age, the Sahara region was much wetter, with several rivers and lakes and more rainfall.  Many animals, including elephants and giraffes lived among the forests and grasslands that covered the region at that time.  Through natural processes the African climate became drier, and the Sahara began to turn into a deserta trend which continues in modern times.   
     In recent decades, however, humans have contributed to a more rapid desertification process.  People have brought about desert spread by allowing animals to overgraze land and by cutting down trees and shrubs along border regions.  Typically, population pressures force overuse of land, with the unfortunate consequence that the land eventually supports no one. 

 Brazilian Rain Forest

     The Amazon rain forest of Brazil is one of Earth's great phenomena, acting as part of the planet's lung system by its continuous exchange of carbon dioxide for oxygen.  This rain forest, which is home to 2-3 million people and over 40,000 varieties of plants, has been the source of growing public concern and innumerable fact-finding missions by politicians, celebrities and environmental groups.  
     Destruction of the Brazilian rain forest began with the arrival and settlement of the Portuguese 500 years ago.  A resurgence of destruction began in the 1960's with incentives offered by the Brazilian government designed to bring "civilization" to the Amazon forest.  Brazil's laws and tax system have made deforestation profitable, prompting big ranchers and land speculators to clear rain forest land.  From 1966 to 1978, 20 million acres of Amazon forest were cut down for cattle pasture.  Cattle raised on cleared rain forest land is often exported to the United States.  Approximately 15% of the Amazon forest has been destroyed overall and at the present rate of deforestation, this forest might disappear altogether in 35 to 100 years. 

 
    -Overview
Sahara Desert
Brazilian Rain Forest
    Overview

     Currently 625 million people live where the air is unhealthy to breathe.  In modern society, millions of tons of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides are released into the air each year, mostly by cars, trucks, buses, power plants, and oil and chemical plants.  Power plants are largest producers of nitric acid and sulfuric acid.   Cars produce 20 pounds of carbon dioxide for every gallon of gas burned.  These emissions, when combined with ozone, form smog, which is harmful to trees and plants, as well as humans and wildlife.  Other air pollutants that especially endanger people are carbon monoxide, lead and dust particles.  Additionally, the problems of acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming are not only public health problems but can have catastrophic consequences for the global environment.

 1-Bhopal Chemical Accident

     On December 3, 1984 in Bhopal, India the Union Carbide India Limited plant leaked methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas to the surrounding city.  MIC is heavier than air and so remains close to the ground.  Anyone not living in tightly closed buildings or in upper stories were exposed to the poisonous gas.  Reports vary as to the actual number killed by the gas leak, but estimates range from 1,700-10,000 deaths and 300,000 injuries.  The accident is said to have been caused by failed or improper security procedures and a lack of appropriately trained workers to implement those procedures in the event of a crisis.

 2-Smog in Ireland

     The unhealthy air in Ireland's capital results from heavy use of coal for home heating and from Dublin's regular temperature inversions.  Temperature inversions occur when cool air gets trapped at ground level, beneath warmer air above, which forms fog.  Smoke from coal-burning stoves is trapped in the cool air.  When smoke combines with fog, smog is created. In Dublin smog is very dense and contributes to lung, bloodstream and heart disorders.

 3-Chernobyl Nuclear Accident

     On April 26, 1986 the world witnessed its worst nuclear disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the western Soviet Union.  An explosion in one of the plant's four reactors shot radioactive gases and materials three miles into the atmosphere.  Roughly 30 deaths are attributed directly to the accident.  Most of these people were part of cleanup crews and died of radiation poisoning.  
     Winds carried nuclear toxins from Chernobyl throughout the world.  Increased radioactivity in air, water and food were reported across Europe and as far away as the United States.  It will take years to determine far-reaching environmental effects of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, as the surrounding area still registers elevated radiation levels.

 4-Acid Rain in Czechoslovakia

     Many major cities throughout Czechoslovakia are facing critical air pollution and acid rain crises. Smog emergencies are frequent throughout the winter months when pollution is heaviest due to increased use of coal for heating.  Emergencies are so severe that children are told to stay indoors and medical operations postponed.  
     Czechoslovakia's problems stem from widespread use of low-grade coal.  Czechoslovakia became highly industrialized before World War II, but after the war the country could not afford to modernize its factories to use cleaner, more expensive forms of energy like electricity or natural gas. 

 5-Tire Fire

     In February 1990 a huge tire dump south of Toronto was set on fire by an arsonist.  Tire dumps have known to burn for months on end.  In addition to thick, black, toxic smoke emitted by burning rubber, a tire fire poses another environmental hazard.  Under extreme heat, one tire can melt into two gallons of toxic oil.  Meltdown of just half of this Canadian dump's 14 million tires will yield as much oil as the Exxon Valdez oil spill. 
     In the United States 240-260 million tires are discarded every year, creating more than 1,000 mounds of tire heaps across the country. 

 6-Blackest Town in the World

     Copsa Mica, a town located 150 miles from Bucharest, Romania has been awarded the unwelcome title, "blackest town in the world" by Time magazine.  The town's tire industry spews toxic, coal-based clouds into the sky 24 hours a day.  Virtually everything in the town is covered with black soot.  In addition to the destruction of the physical environment, the people of Copsa Mica are plagued with health maladies including lead poisoning, bronchial asthma and malformations among newborns.

 7-Smog in L.A.

     Hundreds of thousands of cars, trucks and buses combined with hot sunny weather create ozone pollution, also known as smog.  Los Angeles is a perfect smog factory with  weather conditions that cook emissions from the enormous numbers of cars.  This metropolis ranks first among American cities failing the federal ozone smog standard.   From 1986 to 1988 Los Angeles averaged 145 days per year that exceeded the "safe" smog level.
     Los Angeles is not alone with an urban smog problem.  In the summer of 1988, more than 100 U.S. cities, towns and rural areas suffered from ozone pollution levels considered unsafe for humans.   
     Immediate health effectsdifficulty breathing, burning eyes, headaches and nauseahave been experienced by nearly all urban dwellers.  Long-term exposure to smog presents the greatest health risk to children, elderly, pregnant women and people with respiratory problems. 

 8-Killer Lake

     In 1986, without warning, Lake Nyos in Cameroon, West Africa spewed about a billion cubic meters of concentrated carbon dioxide gas into the air.  This 150-foot high cloud of gas flattened low vegetation as it rushed downward to the nearby village ten miles away.  The heavy gas forced aside breathable air and suffocated everything in its path, including 1,700 people and 3,000 cattle.  Carbon dioxide levels are still dangerously high in Lake Nyos.  Lake Nyos lies on a volcanic chain and is one of 30 crater lakes lie in Cameroon.   
     Scientists theorize that over the years, carbon dioxide escaped from hot rocks of this volcanic crater-lake into groundwater and ultimately into the bottom of the lake.  Possibly a landslide, an earth tremor, turbulence from a strong wind or rain or a change in water temperature caused the carbon dioxide to shoot to the surface of the water where it was expelled as gas.    

 Ozone Overview

     Ozone surrounds Earth in a protective layer in the upper atmosphere.  By absorbing the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays, the ozone layer protects all living things.  Excessive ultraviolet radiation can cause skin cancer, weakened immune system in humans, severe damage to crops and degeneration of ocean life.
     Over the past 20 years the protective ozone layer has been depleted up to 3% in the Northern Hemisphere.  The ozone layer is slowly being destroyed largely because of two human-made gases called chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and halon.  With the use of aerosol cans, leaky air conditioners, and certain fire extinguishers, halon and chlorofluorocarbons float into the atmosphere where the sun's ultraviolet radiation breaks up their molecules.  The subsequent release of a single chlorine atom effectively destroys 100,000 molecules of ozone.  Ozone-destroying chemicals take 15 to 20 years to reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere, which means that even after we have stopped releasing these chemicals, the ozone layer will continue to decay for decades. 

 Acid Rain Overview

     Acid rain is pollution that humans cause when wastes from burning fossil fuels mix with the natural water cycle.  In the United States, electric power plants, responsible for 65% of sulfur dioxide emitted into the air, and car exhaust are the major contributors to acid rain.  Emissions from these sources make rain as much as 2,000 times more acidic than unpolluted rain water. 
     Acid rain (or acidic snow, sleet, mist, fog or clouds) can kill plant and animal life in streams and lakes.  It also acidifies the soil which then damages trees.  Acid rain erodes buildings making them less stable, and centuries old statues throughout the world are becoming faceless figures.
     Some countries are now using filters for power plant smokestacks and catalytic converters to clean car exhaust in order to prevent acid rain.  

 
    Overview
1-Bhopal Chemical Accident
2-Smog in Ireland
3-Chernobyl Nuclear Accident
4-Acid Rain in Czechoslovakia
5-Tire Fire
6-Blackest Town in the World
7-Smog in L.A.
8-Killer Lake
Ozone Overview
Acid Rain Overview
  
 Overview

     The diversity and survival of species are vital to everyone's well-being.  As important components of Earth's ecosystem, plants and animals provide essential life-support services, including food, air, energy, and beauty.  Scientists believe that at least three species of plants or animals become extinct each day.  Species do die out naturally, but there are many examples of humans intentionally destroying animals that interfere with or serve some human activities.  For example, millions of buffalo once freely roamed the western United States, living in balance with other inhabitants, such as native Americans, until the white man came and hunted buffalo to near extinction.  Other animals are overhunted in an effort to provide humans with goods or luxury items, such as ivory and fur coats.  Several whale species, including the Southern Right Whale, the Bowhead, the Humpback, and the gigantic Blue Whale, were once abundant until they were hunted for their valuable oil and meat.  
     However, the most common way that humans endanger species is by mistake.  By clearing land for roads, farms, houses or buildings, natural animal habitats are destroyed.  Pollution of the land, air and water can also upset the delicate balance in which many species live.  Moreover, plants and animals in an ecosystem are interdependent and maintain a predator-prey relationship that keeps populations in a delicate balance.  The extinction of one species could cause the extinction of another, if for example it is the primary food source for the other. 
     Exclusive reliance on one type of plant or animal for farming also can endanger the survival of a species, as well as adversely affect those that rely on the food.  For example, expansive monoculture corn crops in the United States could be devastated by a single disease for which the breed has no resistance.  Chickens are another example of our excessive reliance on a single breed, to the detriment of species diversity and survival.  Out of hundreds of breeds of chickens, 95% eggs eaten in the United States are from one type of chicken.     

 Selected Endangered Animals

Africa
-Black rhinoceros
-Northern white rhinoceros
-African elephant
-Reticulated giraffe
-Gorilla
-Cheetah
-Aye-Aye
-Grevy's zebra

Asia
-Snow leopard
-Giant panda
-Asiatic lion
-Wild yak
-Orangutan
-Tiger

Europe
-Spanish lynx
-Monk seal

North America
-California condor
-Manatee
-Gray Wolf
-Humpback whale
-Blue whale

Oceania
-Banded hare wallaby
-Tuatara
-Red kangaroo

South America
-Marmoset
-Indigo macaw
-Woolly spider monkey
-Cuban crocodile
-Vicuna
-Galapagos tortoise

Central America
-Imperial woodpecker 
-Spider monkey 
-Darwin's rhea
 
   %Overview
Selected Endangered Animals
  ! Overview

     Water pollution is one of the most serious problems facing Earth today.  Humans are polluting oceans and freshwater supplies that all living things need to survive.  Water gets contaminated either from direct dumping or by toxins seeping through land into groundwater.  
     Groundwater yields 90% of the world's drinking water.  The greatest threat to groundwater now comes from agriculture, cities, mining and oil refining.  Pesticides, sewage, chemicals used to de-ice roads and gasoline are just a few groundwater pollutants.  
     Sedimentation is a freshwater pollutant, but also heavily affects ocean saltwater.  Off-shore drilling for oil or minerals is a major factor in disturbing the surface of the ocean bed.  Resultant cloudy water prevents necessary sunlight from reaching plants that are food for fish.  Further, sometimes toxins like lead and mercury are released during drilling and absorbed by fish and shellfish that are then eaten by humans and other animals. 

 1-Valdez Oil Spill

     For years environmentalists warned that oil loading stations such as the one at Valdez in Prince William Sound, Alaska are disasters waiting to happen.  Nonetheless, no one was equipped to handle the massive oil spill caused by the grounding of the oil tanker "Exxon Valdez" on March 24, 1989.  The tanker spilled more than 11 million gallons of crude oil, causing a 50 mile-long oil slick that contaminated over 350 miles of Alaska's shoreline and making it the worst spill in American history.  

 2-Iranian Tanker Explosion

     The Kharg-5, an Iranian oil tanker in questionable condition, suffered an explosion and fire in December 1989 which caused 19 million gallons of oil to leak into the ocean.  This spill was nearly twice as large as the Exxon Valdez spill, nine months earlier.   The spill stayed approximately 20 miles off the Moroccan coast allowing the British, French and Spanish governments a relatively speedy cleanup.  
     Spills are continuing to occur regularly.  In the year following the March 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, an estimated 10,000 smaller spills occurred worldwide, dumping an additional 4 to 20 million gallons of oil into the world's waterways. 

 3-Selenium in Kesterson Reservoir

     The Kesterson Reservoir is part of Kesterson Wildlife Refuge in the San Joaquin Valley water system.  Rather than serving as a true refuge to wildlife, however, Kesterson Reservoir contains some of the most toxic water in California. 
     Kesterson Reservoir is one in a series of 12 ponds that receive agricultural runoff from the state's intensely irrigated Central Valley.  High levels of selenium, a nonmetallic element that occurs naturally in the western San Joaquin Valley, have concentrated in the reservoir.  Although essential to animal diets in minute amounts, selenium is toxic to fish, fowl, and people in high concentrations.

 4-Hong Kong Harbor

     Hong Kong, known as the "fragrant harbor" in Chinese, is suffering from inadequate waste control and dangerously polluted water.  Chemicals and raw sewage are pumped directly into the harbor, contaminating edible shellfish such as oysters, and closing beaches due to health risks.
     These severe pollution problems stem from rapid growth of industry and housing developments in densely populated Hong Kong.  There has been little attempt to control growth, or educate citizens of Hong Kong on how to care for their environment.  Litter is prevalent, raw sewage is frequently dumped directly onto the street, and people are generally averse to government environment controls. 

 5-New River Pollution

     The New River flows from Mexicali, Mexico through Calexico, California and empties into the Salton Sea.  This river is said to contain 400,000 times more bacteria than the United States Environmental Protection Agency-mandated level for freshwater containing shellfish.  Pollution levels are high in the New River because Mexicali does not have adequate sewage treatment for its population.  Therefore, millions of gallons of human waste and industrial sewage end up in the New River. 

 6-Disappearing Aral Sea

     The Aral Sea was once the sixth largest sea in the world.  Today this sea in the southwestern portion of the Soviet Union is drying up.  It has lost over half of its water in the past 20 years and is expected to disappear after the turn of the century.  
     The Aral Sea is shrinking because the Soviet government rerouted two feeder rivers, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, away from the sea.  The motivation for changing these water patterns was to try to develop new irrigated farmland for cotton on dry desert-like land.  
     The loss of the Aral Sea is dramatically changing the ecological balance of this region and has already caused devastating effects: warming temperatures, high infant mortality, recurring illnesses in adults, and ironically, reduced cotton output.

 7-Diverting the Danube

     Work has already begun to divert a 120-mile portion of the Danube River along the Hungarian-Czechoslovak border.  This controversial project is being undertaken by Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Austria in order to develop hydroelectric power.  The river's water will be diverted to a newly built large-scale hydroelectric plant, where the water is dammed and then released in large waves to create flash floods that generate electricity.   
     The project requires drastically altering a natural body of water and eliminating water that feeds a wildlife sanctuary.  Powerful flood waters will push pollutants upstream into tributaries that were otherwise not contaminated.  Environmentalist fear the loss of thousands of plant and animal species resulting from the lack of Danube water and further contamination of the already polluted Danube, the supply for two million people. 

 8-Polluted Taiwan

     Taiwan is considered one of the most polluted countries in the world.  The petrochemical and plastics industries have been able to grow and flourish with few or no environmental regulations.  In fact, by ignoring environmental and health consequences industrial development was probably faster and cheaper.  Only recently have the Taiwanese people developed enough political strength to challenge industries to stop polluting, but the government has been slow to develop and implement pollution regulations.  
     The government-owned China Petrochemical Corporation is located on the Houchin River.  It has been dumping heavily polluted water directly into the river for more than 40 years.  Thus, oil can be found throughout the groundwater in villages near the plant.   

 9-Poisoned Great Lakes

     Between the United States and Canada lie five bodies of water known as the Great Lakes.  The two countries share four of the five lakes.  Together these lakes make up one fifth of the world's surface freshwater (95% of the surface freshwater in the United States).  
     These lakes are in trouble.  They have been the dumping ground for industry for 150 years.  Today they absorb sludge and sewage waste from manufacturers of steel and automobiles, fertilizer waste from farms, human waste from the coastal cities and towns, and airborne pollutants like the dangerous PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) through wind and rain.   High levels of these toxins and associated cancer have been found in fish and other marine life in the lakes. 

 10-Baltic Water Problems  

     The Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, have a serious water pollution problem.  Located on the Baltic Sea, all three states have been pouring chemical and industrial waste directly into shoreline waters or into waterways that flow into the sea, rendering most of their beaches unswimmable.  The problem stems from lack of or inadequate water treatment centers for both industrial and human waste.  

 11-New York Waste

     In one year New York City dumps eight million tons of treated human sewage off its coast into the Atlantic Ocean.  Each day barges remove hundreds of thousands of gallons of waste and then dump the waste 106 miles off the coast.  The city has been managing waste sludge this way throughout the 20th century.  The only difference today is that there is more waste, and the barges have to travel farther to dump it.
     New York City's sewage system is so old and worn that in heavy rains the sewage plants break down and dump raw waste directly into New York's harbor.  This dumping has killed marine life, poisoned shellfish beds and poses untold health threats to the coast's human population.  

 
  Overview
1-Valdez Oil Spill
2-Iranian Tanker Explosion
3-Selenium in Kesterson Reservoir
4-Hong Kong Harbor
5-New River Pollution
6-Disappearing Aral Sea
7-Diverting the Danube
8-Polluted Taiwan
9-Poisoned Great Lakes
10-Baltic Water Problems  
11-New York Waste
   Overview

     Throughout the world, industry, transportation and many homes rely for operation on fossil fuels, such as oil, gas and coal.  Other types of energy include nuclear power which uses radioactive uranium, and hydroelectric power, which generates power from falling water.  There are drawbacks to all these energy sources, however: namely, they damage the environment.  Burning fossil fuels causes acid rain and global warming via the greenhouse effect.  Nuclear power produces long-term radioactive pollution and waste disposal problems.  Hydroelectric power is less polluting, yet construction of large dams necessary to generate this type of power can have significant negative impact on the environment.
     In poorer countries the main source of energy in the home is burning wood, which, on a large scale or over a long period of time, can lead to deforestation. 
     Nonrenewable energy resources (coal, oil, gas) have been viewed as abundant, relatively easy to extract from the ground and cheap when the cost to the environment is not considered.  Only 11% of U.S. electrical power presently comes from renewable energy resources.  Relatively little effort has been given at the federal level to development of alternative energy sources.  In fact, since 1980 federal spending on research and development for renewable energy sources has gone down 84%. 
     Fortunately, there are many existing and potential renewable energy sources that can be more widely implemented.  Some examples of safer and cleaner forms of energy include: solar power, which uses glass or water to trap the sun's heat, and wind power useful for large- or small-scale electrical production users.  Other possibilities include wave or tidal energy as a source of power or even tapping the heat of Earth's core.
 
    	Overview
  / Greenhouse Effect

     Gases in Earth's atmosphere keep the planet warm in the same way that the glass in a greenhouse lets sunlight in and keeps heat from escaping.  This is called the greenhouse effect.  The problem is that human activities add heat-trapping gases such as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, causing a rise in Earth's surface temperature.  Carbon dioxide is responsible for 50% of the greenhouse effect.  Humans add about 21 billion tons of carbon dioxide to the air each year by burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas, and by destroying forests which release carbon dioxide when they burn.   Chlorofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone are also greenhouse gases which humans produce in large amounts.
     Due to the continued increase in heat-trapping gases, the average global temperature is expected to go up by as much as 9F in the next 70 years.  These higher temperatures could cause droughts, the loss of complex ecosystems and a disastrous rise in sea level due to melting ice caps. 
     Widespread adoption of existing energy-saving technology could cut U. S. energy use by 75% and reduce by 80% the oil the United States burns each year.  Proven energy-saving devices offer considerable financial savings for users and would radically shift the global warming trend. 

 
   Greenhouse Effect
   Overview

     The renowned population biologists Paul and Anne Ehrlich have succinctly stated that "global warming, acid rain, depletion of the ozone layer, vulnerability to epidemics, and exhaustion of soils and groundwater are all, as we shall see, related to population size.  They are also clear and present dangers to the persistence of civilization.  Crop failures due to global warming alone might result in the premature deaths of a billion or more people in the next few decades, and the AIDS epidemic could slaughter hundreds of millions.  Together these would constitute a harsh 'population control' provided by nature in the face of humanity's refusal to put into place a gentler program of its own."*
     More people means more pressures on the environment, more competition for limited resources and the need for more food, land, health care, etc.  Fortunately, people all over the world are generally having fewer children today, but it will take years for the world's population to stabilize.  It took most of human history to reach the one billion population leveland less than two centuries to reach five billion.  In the next century global population is expected to double to ten billion before it finally levels off.  Moreover, nearly 90% of the increase in the population anticipated by the year 2000 will be in developing countries.
     Population control is not impossible, however.  Several proven factors influence the rate at which babies are born such as information, education and assistance to couples to achieve the desired number of children.  Furthermore, improved health and education, integration of women and social equity are known to reduce fertility levels.  Economic growth also results in rapid reductions in birth and death rates, but only if a large majority of the society experiences new opportunities, improved living conditions and easier access to family planning and health facilities.   

*Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich, "The Population Explosion," 1990.  

 
    	Overview
    Overview

     Africa is the second largest continent and has only 10% of the world's population.  This varied land includes vast river basins along the Congo and the Nile rivers, dense rain forests across its equatorial belt and huge expanses of desert in the Sahara and the Kalahari.  In the river basins and along the coastal plains live the majority of Africa's 650 million inhabitants.  Groups of people have adapted to their surroundings differently and thus have developed diverse ethnic, linguistic and religious practices.  
     Africa today is the home for bushmen and hunters, herders and migrants, village farmers and artisan workers.  While nearly 70% of the population lives in rural settings, much as their ancestors did, a growing number of modern urban centers have sprung up with educated and professional classes. 
     Part of the cultural heritage of Africa is the religious experience of its people.  Numerous local traditional religions are practiced by people of different ethnic groups, though these faiths have several common strands, such as reverence for both nature and human ancestors.  Christianity and Islam, which were introduced by both missionaries and conquerors, are practiced widely as well.  
     More recently Europeans colonized Africa.  And from the 1500's until the 1800's more than ten million black Africans were shipped to the Western Hemisphere to serve as slaves.  
     Another vestige of colonization is the partition of the continent.  Arbitrarily drawn borders left many of Africa's 800 ethnic groups divided between states, while others were forced to coexist under an unwelcome ruling party.  Today, these rivalries and border disputes, compounded by problems of overpopulation, drought, famine and disease continue to challenge Africa's stability.

 Great Lakes

     A string of major lakesTurkana, Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, Albert and Edwarddot the north-south plateau at the edge of the East Africa Rift Valley.  They create a unique setting for small agricultural communities nestled on the highlands.  The social organization in this area is characterized by village council elders rather than the chiefdoms common in lowlands and tribal societies. 
     This is also a region of savannas where cattle herders and migrating pastoral peoples come from more arid areas to the north and east. 

 Nile Valley

     Over 75 million people live in the Nile Valley, birthplace to one of the great civilizations of the ancient world.  This narrow fertile strip bordering the world's longest river, winds its way through the arid deserts of Egypt and the Sudan for more than 4,000 miles.  
     Throughout time, inhabitants of the valley have revered the Nile River as an important transportation route and as essential for the region's agriculture.  Annual flooding of the plains deposits mineral-rich silt and removes salt deposits.  Irrigation projects have made the river more manageable but have put an end to the natural flood replenishment of the soil by the rich river silt.

 Horn of Africa

     The Horn of Africa is named after the horn-like shape of the eastern part of the continent and includes the countries of Somalia, Ethiopia and Djibouti.  Culture in this region was shaped over the years by waves of Arab migrants who intermingled with the local Bantu people to produce the Swahili tradition and language.  These migrants also brought the Moslem religion which spread to most of the Horn, except to the Ethiopian highlands and parts of southern Sudan where Christianity has been influential since the third century A.D. 
     In the dry lowlands, people are largely nomadic: they roam with their herds and have tribal and clan loyalties.  The rural population of the highlands is mostly concentrated in farming villages and family compounds along stream and river valleys.  It is in Ethiopia that the Blue Nile originates. 

 Maghreb

     The Maghreb, meaning Western part, includes the states of Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.  To the south of this region lies the vast Sahara Desert which has acted as a cultural divide between northern Africa and the populous south.  Thus, the people of this region have historically interacted more closely with southern Europe and the Middle East than the rest of the African continent.  The people of the Maghreb share much of their culture, religion and language with the Arab-Moslem nations of the Middle East. 
     The coastal part of the Maghreb, with its temperate climate, is where most people live, organized in tightly knit families and agricultural communities.  The Rif and Atlas mountain ranges in the northwest are home to the Berbers, most of whom are light-skinned, dark-haired people whose ancestors date back thousands of years.  To the south are the semi-arid steppes and desert oases where a tribal way of life predominates. 

 Congo Basin

     In the heart of Africa lies the mighty Congo River which branches out to form a huge shallow depression rimmed on three sides by high mountains and receding plateaus.  The Congo Basin is home to several Bantu-speaking ethnic groups. 
     Nearly half the Basin is covered by equatorial rain forests with extremely dense vegetation and a thriving lumber industry based on precious ebony wood. 
     The famous Pygmies of Africa also live in these forests in huts built of banana fronds.  Like their ancestors, the Pygmies survive by hunting and gathering wild fruits.  In the savannas and river valleys of the rest of the Basin cocoa, coffee, cotton, rubber, cassava and maize are cultivated.  Along the rivers, fishermen use wicker baskets to trap fish brought to the surface by swirling rapids. 

 Sahara

     The great Sahara desert forms part of Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Chad, Niger, Algeria, Mali and Mauritania.  It is 3.5 million square miles of mostly arid land with temperature extremes varying from freezing nighttimes at the higher elevations to temperatures approaching 130F in the depressions and wadis. 
     The semi-nomadic life of tribal and herding people depends on underground water resources around the desert oases.  The Sahara and the Sahel, the southern transitional zone between the arid regions and the savanna, have been hardest hit by drought and famine.  The 1980's witnessed massive starvation in this region that was aggravated by political and civil strife. 

 Rain Forest

     Half of the people of Africa live in the tropical rain forest belt that spans Africa east to west and the woodland savannas and the drier plains of the Sahel to the north. 
     The Assanti people farm land in the rain forest region, while the Fulani lead a mostly nomadic life in the savanna belt.  In the Sahel, semi-nomadic herdsmen tend their cattle, restricting themselves from roaming southward due to the presence of the deadly tsetse fly.  The Hausa are an influential group in Northern Nigeria whose language is the trading language of West Africa. 
     Cocoa and coffee plantations thrive in the cleared forest lands, while groundnuts, sorghum and millet grow on the savanna grasslands. 

 Southern Africa

     Southern Africa comprises the woodlands of Zambia and Zimbabwe, the Kalahari desert of Botswana and Namibia, the coastal states of Angola and Mozambique and the veld plateaus of the Republic of South Africa.  Except for the Dutch settlers in South Africa, this is Bantu land, which explains the ethnic homogeneity of the northern countries.  The Republic of South Africa has numerous races and cultures: Afrikaans-speaking and English-speaking Europeans, Indian and Malaysian Asians, the indigenous Africans, and combinations of these known as Coloreds. 
     The land-locked northern countries are village communities engaged in subsistence agriculture, hunting and fishing.  The Republic of South Africa, on the other hand, has a highly industrialized economy, mining and mechanized agriculture.  Wealth is unequally distributed between whites and blacks, and the infamous apartheid system keeps blacks politically and socially oppressed.
     North of South Africa lies the Kalahari Desert, where the Tswana people greet one another with the word "pula," meaning rain.  The Kalahari is also the home of the famous bushmen, an ancient hunting people who still use bows and arrows, and eat roots and insects. 
 
   gOverview
Great Lakes
Nile Valley
Horn of Africa
Maghreb
Congo Basin
Sahara
Rain Forest
Southern Africa
  ![ Overview

     Asia is the largest and most physically and ethnically diverse continent, stretching from the Ural and Caucasus mountains fronting Europe to the Pacific Ocean in the east.  While Asia covers about one third of the world's landmass, it is home to 60% of the world's people.    
     In the northern tundra, indigenous reindeer-herding Siberian people are becoming outnumbered by industry-oriented immigrants. 
     In Central Asia, farmers and nomadic livestock herders span the deserts, grasslands and plateaus to the Tibetan highlands. 
     To the west, at the crossroads of Europe, Africa and the rest of Asia, is the Middle East.  The people of the Middle East were the first to cultivate land, which allowed communities to form and give rise to early civilizations. 
     In the Indian subcontinent, a variety of ecological, religious and linguistic patterns exist side by side, from the icy glaciers of Bhutan and Nepal in the north to the jungles of Sri Lanka near the equator. 
     In the rice-growing lands of Southeast Asia, the varied ethnic groups of Asia are represented.  The archipelago of islands in this region have come under Indian, Chinese and European influences to create a heterogeneous society.   
     All of the world's major religions began in Asia.  Hinduism has the most Asian followers, particularly in India and Nepal.  Islam is widespread throughout the continent, largely due to Arab influence beginning in the eighth century.  East of India, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and Shintoism prevail.  Christianity has relatively few followers in Asia with dominating pockets in parts of Asian Russia, the Philippines and Lebanon.  Only in Israel is Judaism the chief religion.  The traditional religions of ancestor worship and animistic rites also survive throughout the continent.

 Arabian Peninsula

     A rectangular arid landmass bounded by the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf has one of the globe's most forbidding deserts and richest oil reserves.  It is called the Empty Quarter.
     Until a few decades ago, the predominant social organization of the people of the interior was tribal.  Oases provided camping grounds, water holes and source of food.  The camel gave milk, wool, skin, meat and dung for fuel where no trees existed. 
     Coastal ports cities provide a window to the outside world and allow the Gulf states a long record of seafaring and trade. 

 China

     China is the world's third largest country and its most populous.  More than a fifth of the world's population live in China, most of them concentrated in the eastern third of the country.  The vast mountains, high plateaus and marginal farmland of western, or "Inner China," support less than 10% of the population.  The Chinese are relatively homogeneous with 94% of the people belonging to the Han ethnic group.  
     China is an ancient civilization which claims the first written history, dating back 3,500 years.  For nearly 2,000 years China was a dominant world power.  Not until the 1800's did the empire begin to weaken.  For the last 40 years, Communist rule has shaped China's interaction with the rest of the world and efforts to modernize, often amidst unrest and repression. 

 Siberia 

     The Siberian region of north Asia consists of the huge part of the Soviet Union extending from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.  Though it contains more than 40% of the area of Asia, this harsh environment, with bitter winters, scorching deserts and dry plains is home to only 3% of all Asians.
     The government of the Soviet Union has encouraged development in this region, and now European Russians outnumber the indigenous, reindeer-herding Siberians. 

 Japanese Archipelago

     The Japanese archipelago, with four major and a thousand minor islands, shares much of its topography and ecology with the Asian mainland.  Similarly, Japan's early cultural heritage is the result of its interaction, until the 16th century, with mainland China. 
     For the next two centuries the Japanese lived in seclusion under centralized feudal rule, rejecting all outside influences.  By the 18th century Japan began opening to the West. 
     Ethnic and cultural homogeneity, strong familial and group ties and commitment to hard work have aided Japan's rapid rise to modernization.  Today Japan is one of the world's predominant economic powers.  

 Indian Subcontinent

     The Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalayan mountains in the north and the Indian Ocean in the south.  One billion people live in this physically and culturally diverse region, most of them in India.   
     Between the Himalayas and the central plateau lie the Indus and Ganges river basins.  This fertile area is densely populated with old established villages and wheat-growing irrigated fields.  In the east, Hindu Bengal and Moslem Bangladesh share the Bengali culture and language.  Their monsoon-fed plains are ideal for rice cultivation and fishing.  Tribal cultures dominate in the northern highlands.  In the rice-growing valley of Kashmir and the wheat-growing Punjab plains, Moslem, Hindu and Sikh religious beliefs give way to an uneasy co-existence. 
     A multiplicity of languages and cultures throughout the region has left English as the unifying official language of government and business.  Great strides in education and economic development have been made in India since independence in 1947.  But continued rapid population growth and inter-ethnic and religious strife challenge India's political stability.  

 Mekong Basin

     The Mekong River flows 2,500 miles from the highlands of Yunan in China to the South China Sea.  More than 400 million people live in the rich, densely populated region which includes Laos, Thailand, Kampuchea and Vietnam.  The largest concentration of people lives in the flatlands of Thailand and the fertile floodplains of southern Vietnam. 
     The vast natural resources of Southeast Asia attracted European colonization beginning in the 1500's and today provide the livelihood for many involved in agriculture, fishing and grazing.  Unfortunately, the original forests in the northern and eastern highlands have been denuded causing severe environmental degradation.  Rice remains the major single crop, benefiting from seasonal floods and monsoon rainfall for its cultivation. 

 North Islamic Tier

     The North Islamic Tier is bordered in the east by the Indian subcontinent, the Caspian Sea in the north and the Persian Gulf in the south.  By 1500 this entire area, a conglomerate of many peoples,  came under the expanding influence of Islam. 
     Today Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and the southern Soviet states of Uzbek, Turkmen, Tadzhik and Azerbaijan may share the cultural bond of Islam, but they are socially and politically separate.  Since the turn of this century, Turkey has identified with Europe, divided from it only by the narrow Bosporus strait.  At the east end of the tier, Iran has reverted in the last two decades to the medieval concept of the Islamic state.  Afghanistan and the Soviet Moslem states struggle between Communist ideology and Islamic traditions and beliefs. 

 Fertile Crescent

     The Fertile Crescent is the cradle of all civilization.  The world's first agriculture began in this region.  Between the Zagros mountains in the east and the Arabian desert in the west is a region formed by the watersheds of the Tigris, Euphrates, Orontes and Jordan rivers, with one edge on the Persian Gulf and the other on the Gulf of Aqaba. 
     This region comprises present-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian West Bank occupied by Israel.
     The people in the Fertile crescent are predominantly Arabs, united by language, religion and historical background.  The exception to this is Israel, most of whose people are Jews.  The Arabs and Israelis have been fighting over age-old rights to land since Israel was founded in 1948. 

 Southeastern Archipelago

     From the Malaysian Peninsula a dozen major and innumerable minor islands of Indonesia and the Philippines span the ocean between Asia and Australia.  This rich tropical region's position amidst the ocean lanes exposes it to a great deal of influence and trade from the rest of the world. 
     Islam is the chief religion in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei.  Christianity became the major faith in the Philippines during the period of Spanish rule, beginning in 1565. 
 
   Overview
Arabian Peninsula
China
Siberia 
Japanese Archipelago
Indian Subcontinent
Mekong Basin
North Islamic Tier
Fertile Crescent
Southeastern Archipelago
  !m Overview

     The continent known as Europe is actually a peninsula that extends westward from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean and south to the Mediterranean Sea.  This relatively small land mass is home to 700 million people, who speak 50 different languages. 
     Most people of Europe descend from primitive tribes that lived there thousands of years ago.  Tribes of horsemen from the Black Sea region swept south and west through Europe around 2000 B.C.  More recent migrations Africans, Middle Easterners and people of other national and cultural backgrounds live amidst the traditional ethnic groups. 
     With claim to the classic civilizations of Greece and Rome, Europe is the birthplace of most scientific, political and philosophical ideas of the Western world.  During the Renaissance period Europe made great advancements in the arts and learning.  By the 1700's the Industrial Revolution marked the beginning of the modern world. 
     This is also the continent that sent colonizers to open the rest of the Old World to European culture and supplied much of the present-day populations and languages in the Americas, Australia and South Africa.

 Balkans

     The rugged southeastern peninsula of Europe is a frontier region that has attracted ethnic groups from the Danube plains, the Russian steppes and Asia Minor (Turkey).  It is also a cultural border zone between Slav and German, Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic, and Moslem and Christian.  
      Minority groups that include Albanians, Greeks, Bulgars and south Slavs comprise the 70 million inhabitants.  Other racial groups that found their way here are Tartars and Circassians from the 15th to the 19th centuries, Jews who were driven out of Spain in 1492, and Gypsies who wandered from India in the 1300's. 
     The southern part of the peninsula which juts out into the Mediterranean supports fishing and seafaring.  The northern grain-growing plains are the richest in Europe. 

 Iberian Peninsula

     Cut off from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees range in the north, the Iberian Peninsula aligns naturally with North Africa and the open seas. 
     The 40 million Spaniards and 10 million Portuguese inhabitants are ethnically a mixture of the southern Iberians and the northern Celts and Visigoths.  They adopted their Latin dialects and Catholic religion from the Roman occupation.  Subsequent Moorish domination left behind cultural relics and the music of Andalucia.  The Reconquista forced the Moors out and opened sea lanes for the first navigators in search of the New World.  During the colonial period Spanish and Portuguese settlers brought their culture and language to Latin America. 

 USSR

     Of the 270 million peoples who inhabit the landmass from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains and beyond to the Pacific Ocean only half are Slavic Russians.  There are Azers, Baltics, Georgians, Mongols, Turkomen and many other ethnic groups as well, creating massive nationality problems which the communist regime has yet to resolve. 
     Tens of languages are spoken in the 45 republics and autonomous regions of the Soviet Union in addition to the official Russian. 
     The land is as diverse as its people. Tundra in the north gives way to the southern steppes and arid regions in the east.  Shepherds and hunters comingle with the agricultural cooperatives and state-owned factories in a blending of the old and the new.

 Scandinavia

     The homogeneous states of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden escaped ethnic encroachments from other lands.  Instead, Vikings set out from Scandinavian ports and fjords marauding, trading and colonizing across Europe and the North Atlantic. 
     Except for Finland, which belongs to the Finno-Ugrian speaking family of people, the 25 million Scandinavians are ethnically and linguistically Germanic and of the Lutheran faith. 
     Much of the land is highlands, dotted with fjords, woodlands, lakes and rivers.  Population is sparse except in the major urban centers. 
     Reindeer-herding in arctic Lapland and farming and fishing elsewhere are traditional in this region.  However, advanced industrialization has contributed to one of the best systems of social services and shared affluence anywhere in the world.

 Italian Peninsula

     Shaped like a boot, the Italian Peninsula juts out into the Mediterranean Sea.  This region is bounded to the north by the Alps, with the Apennine mountain range running the length of Italy.  
     Italy is divided demographically and economically between the rich industrial north and the poor agricultural south.  From the north, Lombard and Frankish migrants mixed with the Romans already there, while the south came under the influence of nearby North Africa. 
     Nevertheless, the 57 million Italians are linguistically homogeneous with only a small German-speaking pocket in the north and a Slovene enclave near Yugoslavia. 

 France and the Low Countries 

     France is bounded by natural barriers of seas, mountains and rivers, except in the north where it opens to the Low Countries: Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. 
     In ancient times, tribes of Celts and other peoples lived in what is now France.  Romans called this region Gallia (Gaul) and began to invade about 200 B.C.  Franks invaded the region 600 years later and created the unique culture of France.  France then expanded its influence by colonizing many parts of the world, particularly Africa and Asia.  French and other European-held colonies provided Europe with the resources to establish a strong industrial base.  Nonetheless, today the 56 million French, 10 million Belgians, and 15 million Dutch are the largest agricultural producers in Europe. 
      Since World War II inhabitants of former European colonies have been flocking to France in search of work and creating a rich cultural diversity.

 Lands at the Cultural Divide

     Lying along the cultural divide between the Slavic east and the Germanic west, Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia have continuously struggled to preserve their identity against repeated encroachments by their neighbors. 
     The 37 million Poles, 12 million Hungarians and 16 million Czechoslovaks are each ethnically and linguistically homogeneous.  In contrast to the countries around them, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion. 
     Today these countries are in the process of freeing themselves from their 40 year alignment with Communism. 
     Forestry and coal mining are important economic activities since the Carpathian mountain range cuts across this region.  Farming activities are common in the lowlands and in the river basins of the Danube and Vistula rivers.

 German-Speaking States 

     Language has been the unifying factor among diverse Germanic tribes who spread throughout central and western Europe.  Their extended conflict with the Roman Empire and internal strife delayed emergence of the modern nation states of Germany, Switzerland and Austria. 
     Germans have long been in the center of European history and culture. Nevertheless topography and environment have helped preserve local differences and dialects.  The northern plains, central river basins and Alpine range in the south allowed diversity in vegetation and agriculture.  Today, industry is the source of economic success in this region, drawing people and resources away from traditional farming.

 British Isles

     The English Channel separates the British Isles from mainland Europe but has not prevented the two from having close ethnic and linguistic links.  The early settlersCelts, Anglos, Saxons and Normansall came from the mainland and brought with them their Indo-European languages from which English and Gaelic are derived. 
     The 57 million British and 3.5 million Irish formed a union until 1922 when Ireland seceded.  Only Ireland's northern part, Ulster, remained in the United Kingdom with Scotland, England and Wales. 
     Religious differences continue to breed strife and animosity between the United Kingdom and Ireland.  Britons are generally Anglican Protestant, and Irish are primarily Roman Catholic. 
     Neither isle has much in the way of natural resources, which has forced the British turn to manufacturing, trade and colonization in India, Australia and North America.  During the 1940's famine many Irish were compelled to migrate to North America. 
     Today both the United Kingdom and Eire (Republic of Ireland) are members of the European Common Market.
 
    Overview
Balkans
Iberian Peninsula
USSR
Scandinavia
Italian Peninsula
France and the Low Countries 
Lands at the Cultural Divide
German-Speaking States 
British Isles
  ) Overview

     The Americas span two continents (North and South America) and nearly 9000 miles from north to south.  Long before Europeans discovered and settled the New World, Native American tribes inhabited these continents.  Scientists believe that Native American ancestors came to the Americas from Asia 20,000 years ago via a land bridge that is now the Bering Strait.  These Native Americans, particularly the Aztecs, Incans and Mayans, developed highly advanced civilizations that prospered until the arrival of Europeans.
     Cultural patterns today vary due to immigration and ethnic assimilation in recent centuries.  North of the Rio Grande River in North America an Anglo-Saxon cultural base formed and took root early, while to the south an Iberian-Latin one prevailed.  Throughout the Americas nearly three-fourths of the people live in urban settings, with urbanization increasing, particularly in Latin America.  
     North and South America contrast in several ways.  They are divided physically at the Isthmus of Panama and climatically at the equator.  Clustered around the Arctic Circle, Canada's northern territories and Alaska experience a typical frigid climate, while the rest of the North America enjoys more temperate continental weather.  Central America and the Caribbean are physically part of North America but share a tropical climate and a Latin heritage with South America.  Hence, the term Latin America refers to Mexico and the countries southward.  A good part of South America lies at the equator and only towards its southern tip at Cape Horn does a cold marine climate exist. 
     While both continents are endowed with rich resources and sources of energy, North America with its 423 million inhabitants grew into an industrial giant, whereas much of South America and its 290 million people are still developing. 

 Caribbean Basin

     The countries of the Caribbean and Central America span from the Bahamas to Barbados in the east, and from Mexico to Panama in the west.  
     The tropical islands of the Caribbean, until recently, were an international array of British, French, Spanish, Dutch and U.S. dependencies.  The arrival of Europeans, beginning in the 1500's, brought many black African slaves, particularly to the West Indies, and led to the development of creole culture. 
     East Indian labor also supported early colonist plantations, adding Hindu and Moslem to the mix of European Catholic and Protestant faiths, African animism and Haitian voodoo practices.   
     On the mainland, Spanish settlers interbred with the original Native American inhabitants to the degree that mestizos became the predominant ethnic group. 
     The region generally is underdeveloped with unequal distribution of wealth. Besides tourism, cultivation of sugar cane, tobacco, bananas and forest products is common. 
     Political unrest has characterized Central America in recent decades with struggles between military and civilian control, and between capitalism and communism.  Given its geopolitical significance to the United States, there is a long history of U.S. intervention in much of this region. 

 Gulf States

     The land arc around the Gulf of Mexico stretches from Florida to the Yucatn.  Before the division between Mexico and the United States, this region was the battle ground for British, French and Spanish colonists, as well as the Mexican-American War in 1846. 
     In Mexico, mestizos make up half the 87 million inhabitants, as a result of the intermingling of Spanish settlers and Mayan and Aztec Indians.  In the United States, settlers from Europe, French Canada, and Africa joined Native Americans in this region.  
     Plantations were an important economic factor in what became known as the Cotton Belt, overshadowed since by oil and petrochemicals.  Agriculture and fishing, however, remain important to a region endowed with three different physical features: marine rich coastal marshlands and bayous; fertile agricultural plains; and orchard and forest uplands further inland.

 Northern Shield

     A semicircle of arctic coniferous forests, tundra and lakes stretches across North America from Alaska through the Canadian territories around the Hudson Bay, including upper Ontario and Quebec, to Newfoundland.  It forms a shield separating these permanently cold, sparsely populated territories from the prairie states and population concentrations further south. 
     Beneath the frozen surface lie rich mineral resources, including oil, and the forests supply vast quantities of wood and fur-bearing animals.  Towards the west, in Yukon and Alaska, the topography changes to rugged plateaus and a more temperate climate along the Pacific coast. 
     The northern regions of North America were first home to Native Americans and Eskimos crossing from Asia.  Later migrations brought English, French, Russian and Japanese.  

 Central Plains

     Between the Rocky Mountains in the west and the Appalachians in the east, lie the central plains of North America, drained by the Saskatchewan river basin in the north and the Arkansas, Missouri and Ohio tributaries of the Mississippi in the south.  Once the home of the hunting Native American tribes and the buffalo, this vast prairieland is today the major wheat, corn, cotton and rice producing region of the continent. 
     Undaunted by its continental climate of cold winters and hot summers, British, German, Scandinavian and Ukrainian immigrants settled the region by the 1870's.  Economic difficulties have recently caused a population shift from small family farms to urban areas and manufacturing centers.

 Pacific Rim

     Between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains lie the diverse lands that stretch from British Columbia through the western United States to Mexico.  Within this expanse lies mountains, deserts, irrigated valleys and forests with their legendary giant redwoods. 
      A temperate climate and mineral and agricultural resources have allowed this region to become one of the world's breadbaskets.  Additionally, job opportunities in the electronics industry has led to increased migration to the coastal regions.  
     In more sparsely populated inland plateaus cattle ranches, Native American reservations and ski resorts are scattered throughout areas where sagebrush, cactus and mesquite prevail.

 Eastern Seaboard

     European settlement of North America began on the Atlantic coast and spread to the Great Lakes, constituting the eastern seaboard.  The earliest settlers brought with them the Puritan work ethic and intellectual traditions of the Old World which helped establish the first educational institutions and develop representative government.  New waves of immigrants in the last hundred years and expanding transportation networks have led to human and industrial relocation across the continent
     Today, the eastern seaboard is the source for much of the continent's industrial power and is a world commercial and financial center.  The growth of this region was enhanced by its proximity to farmland, forests, sources of iron, coal and oil, navigable waterways and seaports.   
      
 
    aOverview
Caribbean Basin
Gulf States
Northern Shield
Central Plains
Pacific Rim
Eastern Seaboard
  
 Overview

     More than 8 million people of Mongoloid, Caucasoid and Negrit backgrounds live in the constellation of 10,000 Pacific islands lying between Asia, the Americas and Australia.  Some people do not consider Australia part of Oceania, however it is a major land mass in the region with 17 million inhabitants.  Neighboring but much smaller New Zealand has about 3 million people.  Roughly 1,200 of the world's 3000 languages are spoken in the islands of Oceania. 
     The first inhabitants of Oceania came from Southeast Asia and in their isolation developed into distinct cultural and linguistic island clusters.  These Pacific island peoples are commonly grouped into three main regions: Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia.    
     The arrival of explorers in the 16th century was the beginning of an influx of outsiders, including castaways, missionaries and traders.  By coopting family farms and small hamlets, these colonists established coconut, sugar and cotton plantations which, in addition to deep-sea fishing, trade and tourism, remain important to the island economies. . 

 Polynesia

     Polynesia, meaning many islands, is a triangular group of islands with its apex in Hawaii and the base between New Zealand and Easter Island.  Some islands include Cook, Samoa, Tahiti, Tonga, Fiji and the Marquesas.
     Inter-island migrations as far as Hawaii contributed to the spread of Polynesian culture, which today has all but been displaced by modern missionary and colonial influences.  A dwindling number of islanders still speak Malayo-Polynesian, weave mats and clothes from trees, and build fishing canoes by hand.
     The twin islands of New Zealand are the largest in the region with over three million inhabitants, less than 10% of whom are Polynesian, or Maori natives.  These islands are also famous for their wool production, supporting a sheep population of 70 million.
     Since World War II some islands became independent while others remain trust territories of the United States, France and New Zealand. 

 Micronesia

     The diverse island groups of Micronesia range in character from high, rugged volcanoes to low, coral reefs and atolls.  Ethnic characteristics in the western archipelagos, including Palau and Mariana, were formed by settlements from Indonesia and the Philippines.  The eastern islands, Marshall, Caroline and Gilbert, were settled by migrants from neighboring Melanesia.  Together with the native Austronesian and Polynesian languages, English is prevalent. 
     Traditional beliefs in spirits and ancestor worship, primitive lifestyles, and subsistence farming and fishing have been giving way to more modern Christian culture ever since the first European explorers arrived. 
     Today, major economic activities include extensive cultivation of coconut, cassava, tropical fruits, cattle breeding (on larger islands such as Guam), small scale industries and tourism.  These islands were the site of much fighting in World War II and nuclear weapons testing on Bikini and Eniwetok thereafter.

 Melanesia

     Melanesia, meaning black islands, spans across northeast Australia, from New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east.  These islands were first inhabited by Papuan speaking peoples who came from New Guinea and spread to the Solomon, New Hebrides and New Caledonia archipelagos.  
     Communities reliant on rain forest cultivation and a barter system have largely been replaced by modernized, Christian urban communities.  Only in certain rural areas have traditional ways of life, ancient cult beliefs and native dialects survived.  Elsewhere, Melanesian Pidgin, an English-based limited-vocabulary language, is prevalent. 
     Since World War II, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu (New Hebrides) have achieved independence.  New Caledonia remains a French Overseas Territory.

 Australia 

     The island continent of Australia and its smaller companion Tasmania, were first home to Aborigines from Southeast Asia.  The original 300,000 Aborigines have largely been displaced leaving a relatively isolated group in Tasmania.  The first European colonization came to Australia in the 18th century when shiploads of convicts from Britain were sent there.  Today, Australia's 17 million inhabitants are mostly white Europeans.  However, since the 1970's the number of immigrants from New Zealand and Southeast Asia has increased rapidly.   
     Over half the continent, the Western Shield, is arid plateau.  The rest is a mixture of uplands, plains and river basins.  Three-fifths of the continent is pasture and grazing land for cattle and sheep.  The economy of Australia is supported by large bauxite and iron deposits, and wheat, barley, cotton and sugar cane cultivation.  Australia is also a major tourism site with one attraction being the Great Barrier Reef.
 
    2Overview
Polynesia
Micronesia
Melanesia
Australia
   Overview

     The Americas span two continents (North and South America) and nearly 9000 miles from north to south.  Long before Europeans discovered and settled the New World Native American tribes inhabited these continents.  Scientists believe that Native American ancestors came to the Americas from Asia 20,000 years ago via a land bridge that is now the Bering Strait.  These Native Americans, particularly the Aztecs, Incans and Mayans, developed highly advanced civilizations that prospered until the arrival of Europeans.
     Cultural patterns today vary due to immigration and ethnic assimilation in recent centuries.  North of the Rio Grande River in North America an Anglo-Saxon cultural base formed and took root early, while to the south an Iberian-Latin one prevailed.  Throughout the Americas nearly three-fourths of the people live in urban settings, with urbanization increasing, particularly in Latin America.  
     North and South America contrast in several ways.  They are divided physically at the Isthmus of Panama and climatically at the equator.  Clustered around the Arctic Circle, Canada's northern territories and Alaska experience a typical frigid climate, while the rest of the North America enjoys more temperate continental weather.  Central America and the Caribbean are physically part of North America but share a tropical climate and a Latin heritage with South America.  Hence, the term Latin America refers to Mexico and the countries southward.  A good part of South America lies at the equator and only towards its southern tip at Cape Horn does a cold marine climate exist. 
     While both continents are endowed with rich resources and sources of energy, North America with its 423 million inhabitants grew into an industrial giant, whereas much of South America and its 290 million people are still developing. 

 Amazon Basin

     Thousands of tributaries from high in the Andes mountains feed the mighty Amazon River as it flows towards the Atlantic Ocean.  Spreading out from this giant river is the large valley and lush rain forest of the Amazon Basin of Brazil.  Brazil occupies almost half of South America, but the 147 million Brazilians live mainly along the Atlantic coast.  
      The largest group of early settlers were Portuguese, giving their language and Catholic religion to the country.  The Portuguese also forged into the interior and began destruction of the fragile rain forest ecosystem.  In recent decades, the search for new cropland and cattle grazing areas has increased destruction of the rain forest.    
      Today, Brazil is a leader in agricultural products, especially coffee, and in forest products and minerals which provide resources for its growing industrial base.

 Lands of the Andes

     Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, perched high up on the plateaus of the Andes, are home to indigenous Native American peoples, to an ethnic mixture of Europeans (mainly Spanish and Native Americans known as mestizos), and to descendants of the Spanish conquistadors who control much of the national wealth and political power.  While Spanish is the dominant language and culture of the 71 million inhabitants of these lands, ancient Native American tongues and customs have also survived.
     Rich in natural resources, but mostly undeveloped, these four countries are major producers of coffee, silver, tin, copper, oil, tropical fruits and forest hardwoods, as well as coca, the source of cocaine.  Llamas and alpacas live here in their natural habitat and are used for agricultural and other chores. 

 Southern Cone

     The Andes extend southward down the western edge of South America to divide the narrow coastal plains of Chile from the plateaus and plains to the east.  This separation has kept indigenous Native Americans mostly on the Chilean side, and 32 million Argentineans and 3 million Uruguayans predominantly European in racial makeup.  In landlocked Paraguay the population of 4 million descend mainly from native Guarani. 
     Unifying elements of this region are the Spanish language and the Roman Catholic religion brought by early settlers.  A temperate climate has favored cultivation of fruits and production of wine in Chile, cattle ranching and meat and grain production in the Argentina, and harvesting of forest hardwoods in the uplands of Paraguay.
 
   7Overview
Amazon Basin
Lands of the Andes
Southern Cone
   pAutomobile
Bathroom
Energy
Food
Gardening
Household 
Laundry
Personal Hygiene
Pests
Shopping
Government
General
   Overview
1-Love Canal
2-Toxins in Japan
3-Dumping in West Africa
4-Coal in East Germany
5-Dumping in the Marshall Islands
6-Pollution in Antarctica
7-Pesticides in India
8-Disposable Diapers
9-Deforestation in Malaysia
  
ѥ Home

     Between 10 and 40% of all treated water is used in the home.  Only a small portion of this is used for consumption; the rest is used by household appliances, and for cleaning and gardening.
     There are many places around the house that water is wasted.  Watering the lawn or washing the car unnecessarily or improperly can waste water, as can taking long showers or baths, or running the dishwasher or washing machine without full loads. .  
     An area not often thought about when concerned with wasting water pertains to food.  To produce 1 pound of beef requires 2,500 gallons of water, 16 lbs of grains, and the energy equivalent of one gallon of gas.  Excessive packaging also requires enormous amounts of resources to produce, including water.    

 Industry

     Historically many industries were located along waterways to take advantage of the seemingly limitless water supply.  Water was used in many stages of manufacturing, and nearby rivers and lakes were used as dumping grounds for any waste products.  Both of these trends continue today, but resulting environmental problems, such as water pollution and species endangerment,  are becoming increasingly apparent.
     Industry consumes enormous amounts of freshwater to make consumer products.  More than 66 quarts of water is used, directly and indirectly, to produce a single 12-ounce can.  To wash, cool and process the components that make up a car requires an estimated 120,000 gallons of water.  

 Agriculture

     About 30% of the world's harvest comes from irrigated cropland.  Many countries would be left with severe food shortages if forced to rely on rain supplies in dryland areas.    
     There are problems associated with irrigation, however, as witnessed by California's Central Valley.  This otherwise dry land is one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world, thanks to irrigation.  In fact, agriculture accounts for 85% of California's water use.  Government subsidization of water has made it cheaper for farmers to use and waste enormous amounts of water, rather than use only the amount of water best suited to the crops and conditions.       
     Even during recurrent droughts necessitating water rationing in many parts of California, agriculture continues to waste water.  Ironically, these wasteful methods have led to depletion of the soil, elevation of the water table, and accumulation of hazardous runoff, as in the case of selenium concentration in Kesterson Wildlife Refuge. 

 Solutions

     At the personal level, there are innumerable ways to be more conscientious about water use in and around the home.  Water conservation devices can be installed throughout the home.  For example, low-flow toilets require less than 2 gallons per flush as opposed to 3.5 to 7 gallons per flush for traditional models.  Toilets account for 38% of household water use. 
     Industry must shift to more water efficient technologies as well.   Importantly industry must not irreparably poison the water that it uses for production or waste disposal.
     Agriculture will continue to require large amounts of water for irrigation purposes.  However, irrigation systems can become much more efficient and tailored to specific crop needs.  For example, drip irrigation systems can replace flooding methods.  
     Finally, municipal water systems can support conservation efforts, encourage the transition to more efficient technologies, and importantly they can fix leaking pipes in water and sewer systems.
 
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   Labels On
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   $Resources 1
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^AOld Ship
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^5Jeep
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   USSR   Canada
   Haiti
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jklldjkdkd   Brazil
Peru
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Costa Rica
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Brazil
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Peru
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Venezuela
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Chile
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Hungary
Poland
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The Netherlands
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Yugoslavia
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Sweden
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Spain
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Switzerland
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Soviet Union
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Malaysia
Singapore
Thailand
   F.R.G.
G.D.R.
   Japan
North and South Korea
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China
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
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Malaysia
Mongolia
North and South Korea
Pakistan
Philippines
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Taiwan
Thailand
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   United Kingdom
   Mexico
   /Costa Rica
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
   Australia
New Zealand
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Angola
Argentina
Australia
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Burma
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Canada
Chile
China
Colombia
Costa Rica
Czechoslovakia
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Denmark
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Japan
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Malaysia
Mexico
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New Zealand
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Pakistan
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Uganda
United Kingdom
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Venezuela
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Zimbabwe
   eAlgeria
Angola
Egypt
Ethiopia
Kenya
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Nigeria
Tanzania
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Zaire
Zimbabwe
    Agriculture
   Agriculture

     Modern agriculture is both a victim of and the source for pollution.  Air pollution and encroaching urban centers have negatively impacted agriculture.  In turn, scientists have realized in the last two decades that agricultural practices are contaminating both the land and the groundwater supply.  Normal agriculture activities pose a threat through the use of nitrates (fertilizers), bacteria (animal wastes) and pesticides, as well as mineral and salt runoff and soil erosion.  The Environmental Protection Agency has estimated that between 3.5 million and 21 million pounds of pesticides reach groundwater or surface water before degrading. 
     Moreover, overuse and overwatering of cropland can deplete nutrients from the soil, necessitating additional costly and potentially damaging fertilizers, or total land abandonment. 
     In order to preserve the environment and for modern agriculture to be sustainable new (and sometimes old) methods of farming can be adopted.  New methods of integrated farming, pest management and organic farming could eliminate the negative environmental consequences of chemical farming.  Efficient water utilization can conserve valuable soil and avoid ground leaching and water table saturation.   
 
   7 Automobile

     Buy fuel-efficient cars (at least 35 miles per gallon).

     Keep your car tuned and tires properly inflated. 

     Drive at a steady pace. Frequent braking, idling and accelerating can use up to one third of a vehicle's fuel. 

     Use the gasoline octane rating and oil grade recommended for your car. 

     Remove unnecessary weight from your car. 

     Wash your car at home to save water, energy and money.  Use a bucket or at least an automatic shutoff spray nozzle. 

     Recycle motor oil, car batteries and automatic transmission fluid.  Check with a local gas station. 

     When buying a car choose accessories, such as air conditioning and electronic windows, wisely and use them sparingly to minimize CFC leakage and conserve fuel. 

     Encourage your local gas station to purchase equipment to recycle CFC's which are found in automobile air conditioners.

     Turn on your car air conditioner once a month to keep it well lubricated and thus avoid CFC leakage.

     Do not service your car's air conditioner if it is not broken or leaking.  This does nothing more than release CFC's.

     Drive less by combining errands.  Use public transportation.  Bike or walk more.  

     Avoid "drive-through" lines at banks, fast food restaurants and dry cleaners where your car must idle for a long time. 

 Bathroom

     Install low-flow shower heads to save both water and energy (by cutting hot water consumption).

     Install faucet aerators to keep water pressure up while using less water. 

     Put water-filled plastic bottles in your toilet tank to minimize water usage.

     Never put trash that can be put in the waste paper basket in the toilet.  Unnecessary flushing wastes an enormous amount of water, and it is better not to introduce nonbiodegradable waste into the water system. 

     Flush only when it is absolutely necessary.

 Energy

     Buy rechargeable batteries and dispose of regular (mercury or alkaline) batteries as hazardous waste.

     Turn down your water heater to between 120-130F to save energy and avoid accidental scalding. 

     Set your refrigerator temperature between 38-42F and your freezer between 0-5F.

     Buy compact fluorescent lightbulbs for your entire home.  They are more expensive at first, but they last longer, and in six months they will have paid for themselves with energy savings. 

     Turn the thermostat down to 55F at night and when no one is home. 

     Close doors to rooms seldom used and turn off the heat or air conditioning in these areas.  (Check your furnace to make sure this does not cause it to overload.) 

     Install good attic insulation, window caulking and door sweeps on the bottom of your doors (to keep warm air in during winters and cool air in during summers.)  

     If you have a pet door, make sure it fits snugly.

     Ask your local utility company to perform an "energy audit" of your home.  A trained auditor will examine your home and explain what inexpensive energy conservation actions you can take. 

 Food

     Compost organic waste by building a pile of table scraps and yard clippings in your garden where they can decompose and provide important soil nutrients and helpful microorganisms.  

     Avoid putting food down the disposal.  Excessive organic waste in the water system contributes to nutrient overload causing plant overgrowth which suffocates water life. 

     Peel or wash all fruit and vegetables to remove external pesticides before eating.

     Avoid buying tuna since tuna fishing practices endanger dolphins. 

     Eat less meat and foods that require large investments of energy and resources to raise, transport and package. 

     Eat brown eggs instead of white to encourage diversification of chicken species.  

     Eat locally grown and organic food.

     Avoid foods with additives and preservatives.

     Avoid highly processed foods. 

     Wrap food in biodegradable wax paper instead of aluminum foil or potentially toxic plastic wrap. 

 Gardening

     Relandscape using plants native to the area, which require fewer pesticides or fertilizers and conserve water. 

     Plant a vegetable garden and remember to avoid pesticides and chemical fertilizers. 

     Plant pest-resistant species.

     Don't overreact to garden pests.  Learn to tolerate some defoliation. 

     Monitor when pests are at their worst and control them with the least-toxic measures such as spraying plants with a strong jet of water or wiping aphids off with a cloth.

     Plant at least one tree a year. 

     Set up a community garden complete with compost pile. 

     Use rubber soaker hoses instead of sprinklers for watering. 

     Water early in the morning or after sunset to avoid excess water evaporation. 

     Don't overwater your lawn. 

     If you have a small lawn, get your exercise by using a manual mower, not one powered by gas or electricity. 

     Mow your lawn only as needed, keep mower blades sharp, and don't mow it too short.  Longer, clean cut grass retains water better and is healthier. 

     Keep your lawn well aerated.

     Use a rake instead of an energy-wasting leaf blower. 

 Household 

     You can make your own safe and effective all-purpose cleaner by combining: 1 gallon hot water, 1/4 cup vinegar, 1/4 cup ammonia and 1 tablespoon baking soda.

     Avoid harsh and toxic chemical drain cleaners.  Instead pour 1/4 cup baking soda down the drain, followed by 1/2 cup vinegar.  When it stops fizzing, pour boiling water down the drain.

     Avoid aerosol air fresheners.  At best they mask odors, and at worst they coat your nasal passages and reduce your sense of smell. Baking soda in garbage cans, diaper pails or the refrigerator will absorb odors. 

     Buy and use a water-saving dishwasher.

     Don't wash off sidewalks and driveways with water. 

     Recycle plastic containers, aluminum foil and plastic bags by handwashing and reusing at a later date. 

     Recycle all newspaper and waste paper, glass, tin, aluminum, cardboard and plastics when possible. 

     Give every family member a cloth napkin for use and reuse. Washing napkins when necessary is more environmentally sound than paper napkins. 

     Don't use trash compactors, so the garbage will have a chance to biodegrade.

     Use cloth diapers instead of single-use diapers.  

     Instead of plastic pants for babies use natural fiber cloth covers with velcro fasteners.  They're easy to use, more healthful and washable. 

     If you must occasionally use single-use diapers, flush away the waste matter before putting them in the trash. 

     Maintain and repair items and appliances to ensure longer product life.

     Don't put oven cleaners, latex paints, fertilizers, shoe polish or nail polish down the drain.  Instead throw them in the trash. 

     Avoid polyvinyl chlorine (PVC) containers, often distinguished by molded jug handles and frequently used for cooking oil, detergent or salad dressing.  PVC is difficult to recycle, and its manufacture causes extremely noxious air pollution. 

     Never use plastic plates, cups or silverware.  On picnics bring your own plates and silverware or use biodegradable paper items.

     Don't throw away unused drugs or discarded needles in your trash or toilet.  Many pharmacies will dispose of them properly. 

     Conduct a hazardous household waste audit in your home, garage and yard.  Read each label for directions on how to use the product properly and dispose of the container. 

     Save the following for community hazardous waste collection day or give to a licensed hazardous wastes contractor: furniture polish, floor care products, lighter fluid, mothballs, oil-base paints, varnish, turpentine, insecticides, mercury batteries and weed killers. 

     Avoid bleached paper products that contain dioxin residues such as coffee filters, paper towels, toilet paper or baby wipes.  All of these products can be produced without dioxin.  Shop in health food stores, read the packages or ask your grocer.

 Laundry

     Put vinegar in the water for a natural fabric softener when you wash clothes.

     Wash clothes in cold water. 

     Dry clothes in the sun.

     Read labels and avoid laundry detergent and dishwashing detergent that contain highly polluting phosphates.

     Use biodegradable laundry powder, fabric softener, dishwashing liquid, cleanser, soap and toilet cleaner. 

     Use nonchlorine bleach like borax instead of the more toxic chlorine bleach. 

 Personal Hygiene

     Don't let the water run while brushing your teeth or while shaving. 

     Save water by taking short showers and avoiding baths.

     Don't use disposable razors.

     Use biodegradable feminine hygiene products.

     Avoid aerosol deodorants.

     Use mousses and gels instead of aerosol hairsprays. 

 Pests

      Eliminate the need for many indoor pesticides by good housecleaning.

     Control bugs by minimizing uncovered trash and unwashed dishes, and caulking cracks.

     A small amount of low toxicity chemicals like boric acid or diatomaceous earth are effective against crawling insects like ants, termites and cockroaches. 

     Don't use hanging fly or pest strips.  They slowly release toxic insecticides to the surrounding area. 

     Survey your premises for standing water where mosquitoes can multiply and eliminate it.

     Add brewer's yeast and garlic to your pet's food to keep fleas away from your pet. 

 Shopping

     Buy in bulk.  It reduces packaging and saves money.  

     Don't reject imperfect produce.  Picture-perfect fruit and vegetables typically get that way from pesticides, ripening agents, etc., which have no positive value for taste or nutrition, and can have a negative health impact. 

     Buy foods in season.  They are more likely to be locally grown and typically require fewer chemicals such as growth promoters. 

     Buy locally grown produce to minimize transportation. 

     Object to throwaway products before they get established in the marketplace. 

     Borrow or rent items you don't use that often.

     Buy and use the least possible amount of toxic home, auto and garden products.

     Buy eggs in cardboard cartons, not foam plastic ones.

     Reuse plastic or paper produce bags or buy cotton string bags to carry your produce from the grocery store.

     Request alternatives to styrofoam containers in fast-food and take-out restaurants. 

     If you must use plastic bags, buy those made of cellulose or "biodegradable" plastic.

     Buy food in the least amount of packaging.

     Buy organic food.

     Educate yourself about products that may endanger the environment.  (For specific information read "Shopping for a Better World" by Ballantine Books.)  Don't buy these products, and tell your grocer and the manufacturer why.

     Don't buy ivory, furs, reptile skins and leathers, tortoiseshell products or birds and feathers, particularly when travelling outside the United States, as many are endangered species.

     Don't buy or bring coral or plants from outside the United States into the country.  They may be endangered, and they also risk introducing foreign pests.  

 Government

     Lobby your city to start a hazardous waste disposal program. 

     Encourage local government to use reclaimed water for trees and landscape. 

     Support legislation to restore water and air quality.

     Urge elected officials to promote energy efficiency and renewable energy such as solar and wind power.

     Support your local government in the development of public transportation, carpooling, biking and walking programs. 

     Support legislation that will make CFC labeling mandatory. 

     Support measures for controlling agricultural use of marginal land. 

     Oppose the use of road-side weedkillers in your area. 

     Don't forget to vote, particularly for candidates who are committed to protecting the environment. 

 General

     Don't buy furniture made of tropical hardwoods, like mahogany and teak. 

     Don't buy animals or plants taken illegally from the wild. 

     Don't buy halon fire extinguishers. 

     Avoid aerosols that contain CFC's.

     Save trees by stopping junk mail.  Write to: Mail Preference Service, Direct Marketing Association, 6 E. 43rd St., New York, NY 10017.

     Don't burn green wood,  plastics or garbage that may emit toxins. 

     Use cedar chips or herbal products instead of highly toxic mothballs. 

     Use water-base markers and pens instead of permanent ink markers that contain harmful solvents. 

     Give gifts that help the environment, whether donations to a favorite charity, bicycles, backpacks, cloth shopping bags, gardening tools or seeds. 

     Recycle clothes and appliances by donating them to a charity.  

     Use newspaper for packing materials, never foam pellets.  These pellets typically are made using CFC's, and they do not biodegrade. 

     Do not smoke, and discourage smoking in your home. 

     Avoid throwaway contact lenses.  The overpackaging and plastic are wasteful. 

     Don't release helium-filled balloons into the air.  They find their way into the ocean where they can kill whales, turtles and other sea life.   

     Before you throw away plastic six-pack holders, cut each ring so that sea animals can't get caught in them if they enter oceans, lakes or rivers.  

     Buy recycled paper products and goods.  

     Set up a recycling program in your school, office, church or other social institution. 

     Encourage your local newspaper to use recycled paper. 

     Organize or get involved in a beach cleanup.

     Adopt a local river or stream and protect it from pollution and development. 

     Lobby a store or business to stop using polystyrene food containers.  Styrofoam can't be recycled and harms the ozone layer. 

     Promote family planning worldwide. 


***Print out this list and give it to a friend! Use the Print option in the utilities sub-menu.***


Additional tips are always welcome. Please send to them to: EARTHQUEST Inc., 125 University Ave., Palo Alto, Ca., 94301. 

   3Iran
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   5MAP of EARTHQUEST
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  *I Overview

     Earth is running out of space for all the trash that humans throw away.  Americans in particular generate a huge amount of garbage, averaging five pounds per person per day, twice as much as is produced by Germans or Japanese.  In the United States over half the cities half no more dumpsites left.  Ninety percent of garbage is buried in landfills.  When these have filled, some cities have tried shipping their trash to distant places.  
     There are some serious problems with burying trash.  Most landfills are not designed to accept toxic waste.  However, common household items like batteries are thrown into the trash, where they contaminate groundwater with dangerous heavy metals such as mercury.   Even "disposable" diapers pose a problem by sheer volume, taking up 1-2% of all landfills, and introducing raw sewage and accompanying viruses into the environment.  Toxic chemicals or wastes that are dumped directly into water supplies, buried underground, or abandoned on open ground also pose significant health and environmental risks.  
     Growing populations place heavy demands on the environment, for example by the tendency to overpackage.  Excessive product packaging is wasteful, energy intensive and contributes to disposal problems, particularly for materials like plastic or styrofoam that do not break down .
     Of all the trash people throw away, more than half can be recycled.  Recycling reduces the need for raw materials, conserves energy and creates less air and water pollution than in first-use production.  Aluminum, for example, can be recycled over and over.  The recycling process produces 95% less air pollution than when aluminum is first manufactured.  
     Schemes for solving problems created by waste disposal must include government, industry and individuals.  People can have an important impact by changing their lifestyle to include buying wisely (minimally packaged, recycled products), sorting and recycling trash, and repairing and reusing products. 

 1-Love Canal

     In 1978, 21,800 tons of poisonous chemical waste was discovered in a town outside Niagra Falls, New York.  Evidently, 30 years earlier the Hooker Chemical and Plastics Corporation (now Occidental Petroleum) had dumped their toxic waste into an unfinished canal called Love Canal.  This canal was covered and then sold to the town to build a school and houses.  The dangerous waste sludge eventually spread into the schoolyard and private home sites causing health concerns.  New York State declared Love Canal a toxic emergency zone and over a two-year period evacuated 738 families.  In 1988 a state ruling held Occidental financially responsible for Love Canal's cleanup.  Private citizens have recorded numerous cancer cases and birth defects among former residents of Love Canal.

 2-Toxins in Japan

     With its rise as an economic power in recent decades, Japan has been confronted with the unwelcome companions of industry and manufacturingtoxic waste and pollution.  However, Japan has been particularly slow to address its pollution problems. Since 1970 only 14 environmental laws have been passed by the government of Japan. 
     Mercury is a particularly dangerous toxin affecting Japan.  Mercury acts as a cumulative poisonthe body cannot rid itself of this toxin, and thus it collects over a long time, eventually reaching dangerous levels.  This poisonous element, as well as many others, has been found in plants and animals that people eat for food.  A form of mercury poisoning, called Minimata Disease, was first noticed in Japan in the 1950's.  Two outbreaks of this disease killed about one thousand people and injured another two thousand.  The people afflicted were those that ate fish from Minimata Bay, where two chemical companies have been directly associated with toxic waste dumping. 
     Today, many of Japan's lakes and rivers suffer from high levels of toxic pollutants, making them too polluted for even fish to survive. 

 3-Dumping in West Africa

     Industrialized countries like the United States, France, West Germany, Norway and the Netherlands often choose a cheap yet dangerous method of disposing of their toxic industrial, radioactive and pharmaceutical wastes.  The country wishing to get rid of its wastes pays poorer countries for dumping privileges on their open land.  Often the dumping country does not specify how toxic the untreated or partially treated poisonous waste really is or claims it is fertilizer or cleaning fluid.  
     Countries in Africa such as Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Benin, Nigeria and Congo have for years allowed the exchange of toxic waste for desperately needed money.  These African nations do not have the funds or technology necessary to treat the waste.  Eventually untreated waste leaks into the air, soil, ground water and food chain, spreading toxins to the general population.

 4-Coal in East Germany

     East Germany has a vast reserve of coal in the southeastern part of the country.  The country burns coal for virtually all types of energy requirements from household heating to factory lighting.  The East German government is committed to coal for energy purposes in order to reduce the country's dependence on imported energy sources like oil and gas.  A technique called strip mining is used to get to the coal, in which the government evacuates and destroys whole towns, like the town of Eytra whose history dates back more than 750 years.  The citizens of these towns are uprooted and forced to relocate, and the mining process leaves behind vast areas of scarred and gouged earth.  
     Ironically, the coal does more harm that good.  It is poor in quality and has a high sulphur content.  Further, it is very toxic when burned, and it is directly linked to severe acid rain problems in East Germany which kill whole forests and cause high levels of lung cancer and death in young children. 

 5-Dumping in the Marshall Islands

     The Marshall Islands and the United States are jointly studying prospects for a "nontoxic" dump site on the Marshall Islands.  While the intention is to provide the Marshall Islands government with much needed money and to dispose of excessive U.S. trash, flaws in the program are already apparent. 
     The plan is for the United States to provide 99% nontoxic, biodegradable, condensed waste to the Islands to be stored in a durable clay- and plastic-lined dump.  After an estimated 25 years the waste will decompose and convert to soil.  If the dump leaks, there are provisions to catch, collect and burn the runoff.  
     There are several troubling aspects of the nontoxic waste plan. The Marshall islands are known for their harsh tropical storms with heavy rains and winds.  Cracks or breaks in the dump are likely to contaminate waters around the islands which supply inhabitants with food or, worse, to damage the entire ecology of the densely populated island.  Engineers doubt both the reliability of the holding container and the 25-year decomposition estimate.  They believe that condensed garbage will take much longer to decompose.

 6-Pollution in Antarctica

     Considered by many to be the last great frontier on Earth, Antarctica is now suffering because of local and distant pollution.  The fragile South Pole ecosystem has been damaged with the introduction of humans and accompanying toxins.  Seals, penguins and the natural habitat of other animals and plants are being destroyed. 
     Antarctica has witnessed oil spills, machinery left to decay, open-air trash burning pits and raw sewage dumping.  Also, because of air current patterns throughout the world, many airborne pollutants find their way to Antarctica and have created a hole in Earth's protective ozone layer. 

 7-Pesticides in India

     India relies heavily on pesticides to grow food for its bulging population of more than 800 million.  With their food, however, the Indian people consume among the highest amounts of pesticide residues in the world.  Two of the pesticides used widely in IndiaDDT and BHChave been banned in the United States due to their toxicity.  The Indian government is opposed to banning pesticides for several reasons.  India is one of the world's largest manufacturers of DDT, as well as home to foreign chemical and pesticide manufacturers.  Moreover, the market for more and stronger pesticides is growing as food needs increase and crops develop resistance to existing pesticides.  
     To convert to alternative methods of pest management would be costly to the government of India, it would require a massive educational effort and could adversely affect food output at the outset.  There are many examples, however, of conversions to agricultural methods less reliant on chemicals that are cheaper and healthier in the longrun.  Such a conversion would be important for India where pesticides are already taking a toll on Indian health and will continue to do so for at least 20 years, given the persistence of pesticide residues in the environment. 

 8-Disposable Diapers

     Disposable diapers have become a modern convenience and, at the same time, a threat to the environment.  In 1989, 18 billion diapers, made from 1.2 million metric tons of wood pulp and 75,000 metric tons of plastic, were sent to landfills throughout the United States.  These single-use diapers fill up 1-2% of solid waste dumps and may take hundreds of years to break down.  So-called "biodegradable" diapers are somewhat better for the environment because they require less tree pulp to produce, they do not produce dioxins and their plastic biodegrades in two to five years, instead of 200 to 500 years. 
     However, all disposable diapers are a potential public health threat since they introduce untreated human waste directly into landfills instead of into sewage systems.  Thus, groundwater can easily become contaminated by more than 100 intestinal viruses humans are known to excrete. 
     Many states throughout the United States are beginning to draft laws banning or taxing the use of disposable diapers.  

 9-Deforestation in Malaysia

     Deforestation is accelerating in Malaysia at an even faster rate than in South America's Amazon because of constant demand for timber by countries like Japan.  Since 1963 more than one third of Malaysia's jungle has been chopped down.  The Malaysian government rewards deforestation because lumber is a valuable source of revenue for the country.  
     As the world loses rain forests, it also loses plant and animal species from which many medicines are derived.  Moreover, rain forests are a worldwide asset due to their ability to replenish oxygen in the air and to absorb carbon dioxide, believed to be a major contributor to the greenhouse effect.

 
  7M Automobile

     Buy fuel-efficient cars (at least 35 miles per gallon).

     Keep your car tuned and tires properly inflated. 

     Drive at a steady pace. Frequent braking, idling and accelerating can use up to one third of a vehicle's fuel. 

     Use the gasoline octane rating and oil grade recommended for your car. 

     Remove unnecessary weight from your car. 

     Wash your car at home to save water, energy and money.  Use a bucket or at least an automatic shutoff spray nozzle. 

     Recycle motor oil, car batteries and automatic transmission fluid.  Check with a local gas station. 

     When buying a car choose accessories, such as air conditioning and electronic windows, wisely and use them sparingly to minimize CFC leakage and conserve fuel. 

     Encourage your local gas station to purchase equipment to recycle CFC's which are found in automobile air conditioners.

     Turn on your car air conditioner once a month to keep it well lubricated and thus avoid CFC leakage.

     Do not service your car's air conditioner if it is not broken or leaking.  This does nothing more than release CFC's.

     Drive less by combining errands.  Use public transportation.  Bike or walk more.  

     Avoid "drive-through" lines at banks, fast food restaurants and dry cleaners where your car must idle for a long time. 

 Bathroom

     Install low-flow shower heads to save both water and energy (by cutting hot water consumption).

     Install faucet aerators to keep water pressure up while using less water. 

     Put water-filled plastic bottles in your toilet tank to minimize water usage.

     Never put trash that can be put in the waste paper basket in the toilet.  Unnecessary flushing wastes an enormous amount of water, and it is better not to introduce nonbiodegradable waste into the water system. 

     Flush only when it is absolutely necessary.

 Energy

     Buy rechargeable batteries and dispose of regular (mercury or alkaline) batteries as hazardous waste.

     Turn down your water heater to between 120-130F to save energy and avoid accidental scalding. 

     Set your refrigerator temperature between 38-42F and your freezer between 0-5F.

     Buy compact fluorescent lightbulbs for your entire home.  They are more expensive at first, but they last longer, and in six months they will have paid for themselves with energy savings. 

     Turn the thermostat down to 55F at night and when no one is home. 

     Close doors to rooms seldom used and turn off the heat or air conditioning in these areas.  (Check your furnace to make sure this does not cause it to overload.) 

     Install good attic insulation, window caulking and door sweeps on the bottom of your doors (to keep warm air in during winters and cool air in during summers.)  

     If you have a pet door, make sure it fits snugly.

     Ask your local utility company to perform an "energy audit" of your home.  A trained auditor will examine your home and explain what inexpensive energy conservation actions you can take. 

 Food

     Compost organic waste by building a pile of table scraps and yard clippings in your garden where they can decompose and provide important soil nutrients and helpful microorganisms.  

     Avoid putting food down the disposal.  Excessive organic waste in the water system contributes to nutrient overload causing plant overgrowth which suffocates water life. 

     Peel or wash all fruit and vegetables to remove external pesticides before eating.

     Avoid buying tuna since tuna fishing practices endanger dolphins. 

     Eat less meat and foods that require large investments of energy and resources to raise, transport and package. 

     Eat brown eggs instead of white to encourage diversification of chicken species.  

     Eat locally grown and organic food.

     Avoid foods with additives and preservatives.

     Avoid highly processed foods. 

     Wrap food in biodegradable wax paper instead of aluminum foil or potentially toxic plastic wrap. 

 Gardening

     Relandscape using plants native to the area, which require fewer pesticides or fertilizers and conserve water. 

     Plant a vegetable garden and remember to avoid pesticides and chemical fertilizers. 

     Plant pest-resistant species.

     Don't overreact to garden pests.  Learn to tolerate some defoliation. 

     Monitor when pests are at their worst and control them with the least-toxic measures such as spraying plants with a strong jet of water or wiping aphids off with a cloth.

     Plant at least one tree a year. 

     Set up a community garden complete with compost pile. 

     Use rubber soaker hoses instead of sprinklers for watering. 

     Water early in the morning or after sunset to avoid excess water evaporation. 

     Don't overwater your lawn. 

     If you have a small lawn, get your exercise by using a manual mower, not one powered by gas or electricity. 

     Mow your lawn only as needed, keep mower blades sharp, and don't mow it too short.  Longer, clean cut grass retains water better and is healthier. 

     Keep your lawn well aerated.

     Use a rake instead of an energy-wasting leaf blower. 

 Household 

     You can make your own safe and effective all-purpose cleaner by combining: 1 gallon hot water, 1/4 cup vinegar, 1/4 cup ammonia and 1 tablespoon baking soda.

     Avoid harsh and toxic chemical drain cleaners.  Instead pour 1/4 cup baking soda down the drain, followed by 1/2 cup vinegar.  When it stops fizzing, pour boiling water down the drain.

     Avoid aerosol air fresheners.  At best they mask odors, and at worst they coat your nasal passages and reduce your sense of smell. Baking soda in garbage cans, diaper pails or the refrigerator will absorb odors. 

     Buy and use a water-saving dishwasher.

     Don't wash off sidewalks and driveways with water. 

     Recycle plastic containers, aluminum foil and plastic bags by handwashing and reusing at a later date. 

     Recycle all newspaper and waste paper, glass, tin, aluminum, cardboard and plastics when possible. 

     Give every family member a cloth napkin for use and reuse. Washing napkins when necessary is more environmentally sound than paper napkins. 

     Don't use trash compactors, so the garbage will have a chance to biodegrade.

     Use cloth diapers instead of single-use diapers.  

     Instead of plastic pants for babies use natural fiber cloth covers with velcro fasteners.  They're easy to use, more healthful and washable. 

     If you must occasionally use single-use diapers, flush away the waste matter before putting them in the trash. 

     Maintain and repair items and appliances to ensure longer product life.

     Don't put oven cleaners, latex paints, fertilizers, shoe polish or nail polish down the drain.  Instead throw them in the trash. 

     Avoid polyvinyl chlorine (PVC) containers, often distinguished by molded jug handles and frequently used for cooking oil, detergent or salad dressing.  PVC is difficult to recycle, and its manufacture causes extremely noxious air pollution. 

     Never use plastic plates, cups or silverware.  On picnics bring your own plates and silverware or use biodegradable paper items.

     Don't throw away unused drugs or discarded needles in your trash or toilet.  Many pharmacies will dispose of them properly. 

     Conduct a hazardous household waste audit in your home, garage and yard.  Read each label for directions on how to use the product properly and dispose of the container. 

     Save the following for community hazardous waste collection day or give to a licensed hazardous wastes contractor: furniture polish, floor care products, lighter fluid, mothballs, oil-base paints, varnish, turpentine, insecticides, mercury batteries and weed killers. 

     Avoid bleached paper products that contain dioxin residues such as coffee filters, paper towels, toilet paper or baby wipes.  All of these products can be produced without dioxin.  Shop in health food stores, read the packages or ask your grocer.

 Laundry

     Put vinegar in the water for a natural fabric softener when you wash clothes.

     Wash clothes in cold water. 

     Dry clothes in the sun.

     Read labels and avoid laundry detergent and dishwashing detergent that contain highly polluting phosphates.

     Use biodegradable laundry powder, fabric softener, dishwashing liquid, cleanser, soap and toilet cleaner. 

     Use nonchlorine bleach like borax instead of the more toxic chlorine bleach. 

 Personal Hygiene

     Don't let the water run while brushing your teeth or while shaving. 

     Save water by taking short showers and avoiding baths.

     Don't use disposable razors.

     Use biodegradable feminine hygiene products.

     Avoid aerosol deodorants.

     Use mousses and gels instead of aerosol hairsprays. 

 Pests

      Eliminate the need for many indoor pesticides by good housecleaning.

     Control bugs by minimizing uncovered trash and unwashed dishes, and caulking cracks.

     A small amount of low toxicity chemicals like boric acid or diatomaceous earth are effective against crawling insects like ants, termites and cockroaches. 

     Don't use hanging fly or pest strips.  They slowly release toxic insecticides to the surrounding area. 

     Survey your premises for standing water where mosquitoes can multiply and eliminate it.

     Add brewer's yeast and garlic to your pet's food to keep fleas away from your pet. 

 Shopping

     Buy in bulk.  It reduces packaging and saves money.  

     Don't reject imperfect produce.  Picture-perfect fruit and vegetables typically get that way from pesticides, ripening agents, etc., which have no positive value for taste or nutrition, and can have a negative health impact. 

     Buy foods in season.  They are more likely to be locally grown and typically require fewer chemicals such as growth promoters. 

     Buy locally grown produce to minimize transportation. 

     Object to throwaway products before they get established in the marketplace. 

     Borrow or rent items you don't use that often.

     Buy and use the least possible amount of toxic home, auto and garden products.

     Buy eggs in cardboard cartons, not foam plastic ones.

     Reuse plastic or paper produce bags or buy cotton string bags to carry your produce from the grocery store.

     Request alternatives to styrofoam containers in fast-food and take-out restaurants. 

     If you must use plastic bags, buy those made of cellulose or "biodegradable" plastic.

     Buy food in the least amount of packaging.

     Buy organic food.

     Educate yourself about products that may endanger the environment.  (For specific information read "Shopping for a Better World" by Ballantine Books.)  Don't buy these products, and tell your grocer and the manufacturer why.

     Don't buy ivory, furs, reptile skins and leathers, tortoiseshell products or birds and feathers, particularly when travelling outside the United States, as many are endangered species.

     Don't buy or bring coral or plants from outside the United States into the country.  They may be endangered, and they also risk introducing foreign pests.  

 Government

     Lobby your city to start a hazardous waste disposal program. 

     Encourage local government to use reclaimed water for trees and landscape. 

     Support legislation to restore water and air quality.

     Urge elected officials to promote energy efficiency and renewable energy such as solar and wind power.

     Support your local government in the development of public transportation, carpooling, biking and walking programs. 

     Support legislation that will make CFC labeling mandatory. 

     Support measures for controlling agricultural use of marginal land. 

     Oppose the use of road-side weedkillers in your area. 

     Don't forget to vote, particularly for candidates who are committed to protecting the environment. 

 General

     Don't buy furniture made of tropical hardwoods, like mahogany and teak. 

     Don't buy animals or plants taken illegally from the wild. 

     Don't buy halon fire extinguishers. 

     Avoid aerosols that contain CFC's.

     Save trees by stopping junk mail.  Write to: Mail Preference Service, Direct Marketing Association, 6 E. 43rd St., New York, NY 10017.

     Don't burn green wood,  plastics or garbage that may emit toxins. 

     Use cedar chips or herbal products instead of highly toxic mothballs. 

     Use water-base markers and pens instead of permanent ink markers that contain harmful solvents. 

     Give gifts that help the environment, whether donations to a favorite charity, bicycles, backpacks, cloth shopping bags, gardening tools or seeds. 

     Recycle clothes and appliances by donating them to a charity.  

     Use newspaper for packing materials, never foam pellets.  These pellets typically are made using CFC's, and they do not biodegrade. 

     Do not smoke, and discourage smoking in your home. 

     Avoid throwaway contact lenses.  The overpackaging and plastic are wasteful. 

     Don't release helium-filled balloons into the air.  They find their way into the ocean where they can kill whales, turtles and other sea life.   

     Before you throw away plastic six-pack holders, cut each ring so that sea animals can't get caught in them if they enter oceans, lakes or rivers.  

     Buy recycled paper products and goods.  

     Set up a recycling program in your school, office, church or other social institution. 

     Encourage your local newspaper to use recycled paper. 

     Organize or get involved in a beach cleanup.

     Adopt a local river or stream and protect it from pollution and development. 

     Lobby a store or business to stop using polystyrene food containers.  Styrofoam can't be recycled and harms the ozone layer. 

     Promote family planning worldwide. 


***Print out this list and give it to a friend!***


Additional tips are always welcome. Please send to EARTHQUEST Inc., 125 University Ave., Palo Alto, Ca., 94301. 

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Human JourneyHealth and WelfareProgress
QuotationsPeopleCitiesQuotations MenuTK.UtilitiesTK.AddHelpUtilsWhat We CreateHealth and Welfare MenuHuman Journey Menu
Progress MenuWhat We Create MenuJourneyEarth
Game RulesSolar System MenuSolar SystemSun Moon Earth MenuSun Moon Earth	VolcanoesEarthquakes MenuEarthquakesMountains Menu	Mountains
Land Use MenuLand UseNatural ResourcesAtmosphere Menu
AtmosphereCloudsTypes of Weather MenuTypes of WeatherBreath of Life MenuBreath of LifeOceans and Seas MenuOceans and SeasLakes and RiversWater Cycletry	CityCoord	timezones	Map ViewsMap Views MenuLakes and Rivers Menu	Life MenuPlanets MenuPlanetsClouds MenuWater Cycle MenuVolcanoes MenuNatural Resources MenuLifeHelp	Help MenuDeserts and Rain ForestsDeserts and Rain Forests MenuEndangered AirEndangered Air MenuEndangered LifeEndangered Life MenuEndangered WaterEndangered Water MenuEnergy ConsumptionEnergy Consumption MenuGreenhouse EffectGreenhouse Effect MenuOverpopulationOverpopulation MenuPeople of AfricaPeople of Africa MenuPeople of AsiaPeople of Asia MenuPeople of EuropePeople of Europe MenuPeople of North AmericaPeople of North America MenuPeople of OceaniaPeople of Oceania MenuPeople of South AmericaPeople of South America MenuSaving the Environment MenuToxics and Garbage Menu
Wasting WaterWasting Water MenuWhat You Can Do MenuLabels	ResourcesVehiclesWorkshopSoundsNo Resourcesafrica central menuafrica northeastern menuafrica western menuafrica southern menuasia china & mongolia menu
asia southernasia southern menuSouth America Upper menuSouth America, Central Menu!Asia Indonesia & Philippines MenuEurope Scandinavia
 USSR MenuNA Canada MenuNA Caribbean MenuSA Upper, menuSA Central MenuEurope Eastern BlockNorth America MenuEurope Menu	USSR MenuSouth America Menu
SA Upper menu
SA Lower MenuEurope Eastern Block MenuEurope France & Benelux MenuEurope Balkans MenuEurope Scandinavia MenuEurope Spain & Portugal MenuEurope Switzerland & Italy MenuEurope USSR MenuAsia Southeast MenuEurope Germany MenuAsia Japan & Korea Menu	Asia MenuEurope United Kingdom MenuNA Mexico MenuNA Central America MenuOceania MenuNations MenuAfrica MenuEndangered Land MenuEndangered LandSaving the EnvironmentAsia Middle East MenuOptionsIndexToxics and GarbageWhat You Can Do